1. ACCULTURATIONACCULTURATION
CARLOS F. CAMARGO, PH.D.CARLOS F. CAMARGO, PH.D. THE NEW AMERICA FOUNDATIONTHE NEW AMERICA FOUNDATION
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAININGCROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING
FOR NEWCOMER &FOR NEWCOMER &
MICRO-ENTERPRISEMICRO-ENTERPRISE
PRACTIONERSPRACTIONERS

2. Classic Definition
““Acculturation comprehends thoseAcculturation comprehends those
phenomena which result when groups ofphenomena which result when groups of
individuals having different cultures comeindividuals having different cultures come
into continuous first hand contact withinto continuous first hand contact with
subsequent changes in the originalsubsequent changes in the original
culture patternsculture patterns
of either or both groups.”of either or both groups.”
Redfield, Linton, and Herskovitz (1936)

3. Measures of Acculturation
• broader world view
• reduction in ethnocentrisms
• greater self-awareness and self esteem
• attitudes toward host culture
• psychological distress
• perceptual maturity
• mood states
• health evaluations
• feelings of acceptance and satisfaction
• nature and extent of interactions with
hosts

4. Measures of
Acculturation
• acquisition of culturally
appropriate behaviors and
skills
• academic competence
• job performance

5. Models of
Adaptation/Acculturation
• Recuperation model—based on culture
shock (Oberg)
• Learning model (Guthrie, Taylor)
• Journey model—(Bennett)
• Equilibrium model ((Grove and Torbiorn)

6. Anderson’s
Types of Adjusters
1. Returnees
2. Escapers
3. Time servers
4. Beavers
5. Adjusters
6. Participators

7. DOMINANTDOMINANT
GROUPGROUP
CONTACTCONTACT
ACCULTURATINGACCULTURATING
GROUPGROUP
AcculturationAcculturation
Group-LevelGroup-Level
AcculturationAcculturation
PsychologicalPsychological
AcculturationAcculturation
Physical changesPhysical changes
Biological changesBiological changes
Political changesPolitical changes
Economic ChangesEconomic Changes
Cultural ChangesCultural Changes
Social ChangesSocial Changes
Behavior changesBehavior changes
Value changesValue changes
IdentityIdentity
Acculturative stressAcculturative stress
PathologyPathology
AdaptationAdaptation

8. MOBILITYMOBILITY VOLUNTARINESS OF CONTACTVOLUNTARINESS OF CONTACT
VoluntaryVoluntaryInvoluntaryInvoluntary
SEDENTARYSEDENTARY
MIGRANTMIGRANT
PermanentPermanent
ImmigrantsImmigrants RefugeesRefugees
TemporaryTemporary
SojournersSojourners Asylum SeekersAsylum Seekers

9. The U-curve hypothesisAdjustment
Time
Less

10. WARD’S FINDINGS:
DEPRESSION
LEVELS
SOCIO-CULTURAL
DIFFICULTIES
HIGH
HIGH LOW

11. Social Difficulty over Time
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
ENTRY 4 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 12 MONTHS
Time
SCAS

12. DEPRESSION OVER TIME
14
14.5
15
15.5
16
16.5
17
17.5
18
ENTRY 4 MONTHS 6 MONTHS 12 MONTHS
TIME
SDS

13. Hammer, Gudykunst, and
Wiseman (1978) dimensions
of intercultural effectiveness
• Factor I:
Ability to deal with psychological stress
• frustration
• stress
• anxiety
• different political systems
• pressure to conform
• social alienation & marginalization
⊗ financial difficultiesfinancial difficulties
⊗ interpersonal conflictinterpersonal conflict

14. Hammer, Gudykunst,
&Wiseman
dimensions of intercultural
effectiveness (1978)
• Factor II: Ability to communicate
effectively
– ability to enter into meaningful dialogue
– ability to initiate interaction with a
stranger
– ability to deal with communication
misunderstandings
– ability to effectively deal with different
communication styles

15. Hammer, Gudykunst, and
Wiseman (1978)
dimensions of intercultural
effectiveness
• Factor III: Ability to establish interpersonal
relationships
• ability to develop satisfying interpersonal relationships
• ability to maintain satisfying interpersonal relationships
• ability to accurately understand the feelings of other
people
• ability to effectively work with other people

17. Ward’s 2 factor theory
Ward and Chang, IJIR,
1997
• Psychological adjustment: refers to
psychological well-being or
emotional satisfaction
• socio-cultural adjustment: ability to
negotiate the host-culture, or
general intercultural competence

18. Predictors of Ward’s
Factors
• Psychological adjustment
– personality, life changes, social support
• socio-cultural adjustment
– amount of contact with host nationals, length
of residence in a new culture, cultural
identity, and cultural distance

19. Cultural Fit Hypothesis
Ward and Change, 1997
• Distress is a function of the difference
between certain personality
characteristics of the person and the
host country norms
• These levels of distress will be unrelated
to socio-cultural difficulties

20. Psychological Adjustment
of Sojourners:
Pred. Of Mood Dist.
Predictors Beta P
Locus of Con .28 .004
Social Diff .28 .004
Rel. Satisf -.24 .01
Contactwith
Host.Nat
.21 .03
Source: Ware and Kennedy, 1992

21. Socio-cultural Adjustment
of Sojourners:
Predictors of Social Difficulty
Predictors Beta p
Length of
Residence
-.45 .0001
Cultural
distance
.27 .004
Mood
Disturbance
.33 .0003
Cultural
identity
.26 .004
Source: Ward and Kennedy, 1992

22. A test of the cultural fit
hypothesis
• Used extraversion measures with American in
Singapore
• Used norms of Singaporeans provided by
Eysenck
• Measured psychological adjustment by Zung
Self-rating Depression Scale
• Measured socio-cultural adjustment using the
socio-cultural Adjustment Scale

23. Results of Culture Fit
Study
• r between extraversion and psychological
adjustment non-significant (r=-.02) and between
extraversion and socio-cultural adjustment
(r=-.06)
• r between discrepancy and psychological
adjustment significant (r=.23, p<.01), but
insignificant against socio-cultural adjustment
(r=.07).

24. John Berry’s Model of
Acculturation
Maintain cultural identity?
Yes No
Relation
with
other
groups?
Yes
No
Integration
Separation
Assimilation
Marginalization

25. Ward and Kennedy’s
(1994) hypotheses
• Identification with co-nationals is related to less psych.
Adjustment problems
• Endorsing integration is related to lower difficulties in
social adjustment, marginalized will experience the most
psych difficulties
• Identification with host nationals will result in fewer
Socio-cultural problems
• Endorse separation will be related to the level of
difficulties in socio-cultural adaptation, whereas those
that are assimilated will experience the least difficulties
in socio-cultural adaptation.

26. Depression and
Identification
Co-national
identification
High Low
High 7.8(3.5) 10.4(6.2)
Low 14.6(6.4) 12.0(6.8)
Host National Identification
Source: Ward and Kennedy, 1994

27. Social Difficulty and
Identification
Co-National
Identification
High Low
High 11.1(8.6) 24.8(10.7)
Low 13.4(9.1) 18.4(11.1)
Host National Identification
Source: Ward and Kennedy, 1994

28. Competing Models of the relationship
between linguistic acculturation &
ethnic identity
Source: Laroche, Kim, Hui, and Tomiuk, JCCP, 1998.

29. A measure of linguistic
acculturation
• How often do you use (English, Spanish)
• with spouse
• with children
• with relatives
• when at work
• when watching TV
• when listening to radio
• when reading newspapers

30. A measure of linguistic
acculturation
• How often do you use (English, Spanish)
– when reading magazines
– when shopping
– with close friends
– when at school

31. A measure of ethnic
identification
– I consider myself to be Anglophone
– I consider myself to be Hispanophone
– I consider myself to be Salvadoran
American
– I consider myself to be Colombian
– I consider myself to be American

32. Factors affecting
acculturation
• Society of origin:
– Ethnographic characteristics
– Political situation
– Economic Conditions
– Demographic factors (e.g., crowding,
population explosion.)

33. Factors affecting
acculturation
• Society of settlement
– Immigration history
– Immigration policy
– Attitudes toward immigration
– Attitudes toward specific groups
– Social support (availability, usefulness)
• Group acculturation
– changes in acculturating group (physical,
etc.)

34. Factors affecting
cculturation:
Psychological
Acculturation
• Behavioral shifts
– Culture learning
– Culture shedding
– Culture conflict
• Acculturative stress
– Problem appraisal
– Stressors
– Stress phenomena

35. Factors affecting
acculturation
• Psychopathology
– Problems
– Crises
– Pathological phenomena
• Psychological adaptation
– Self-esteem
– Identity consolidation
– Well-being/satisfaction

36. Factors affecting
acculturation:
Psychological Acculturation
• socio-cultural adaptation:
– Cultural knowledge, social skills
– Interpersonal and intergroup relations
– Family and community relations

37. Moderating Factors
Prior to Acculturation
• Demographic (e.g., age, gender)
• Cultural (language, religion, distance)
• Economic (e.g., status)
• Personal (e.g., health,prior knowledge)
• Migration motivation
• Expectations

38. Moderating Factors
arising during
Acculturation
• Acculturation strategies (I.e. Berry)
• Contact/participation
• Culture maintenance
• Social support
• Coping strategies and resources
• Prejudice and discrimination