The role of information literacy in addressing a specific strand of lifelong learning: the work agenda

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Glasgow Caledonian University
Scottish Centre for Work Based Learning
MSc Lifelong Learning and Development

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The role of information literacy in addressing a
specific strand of lifelong learning: the work agenda

By Christine M Irving
April 2007

Work Based Learning Project: Stage 1 & 2
MSc in Lifelong Learning and Development
Module Code: GAPWM04
Module Abreviations: GAP: LLMM20
Matriculation No. 200520429
Word Count: 18,300

Christine M Irving MSc Research Project

Acknowledgements

This research was made possible through the working relationship
I have with Dr John Crawford and the wealth of knowledge and
research experience we have shared and developed over the last
two and a half years that I have worked with him.

My thanks also to Vince Mills and Sabina Siebert for their tutelage
and guidance in the world of lifelong learning and work based
learning, their suggestions and assistance in the recruitment of
interviewees for this research project.

Finally my gratitude and appreciation to all the interviewees who
responded to email requests, telephone calls, and participated in
the research interviews, without your assistance, the research
could not have been carried out.

April 2007 1


Abstract

The purpose of this research was to investigate information literacy
as part of the lifelong learning agenda in particular to gain an
understanding of the role of information literacy in the workplace
and to gauge if possible levels of information literacy skills and
competencies and consider how these vary in different working
environments. In order to do this six semi-structured exploratory
interviews were carried out over a two month period (February to
April) in 2006 on a one to one basis with individuals in a spread of
occupations and interests.

While the study was small and of an exploratory nature it has
highlighted an indication that although the term information literacy
is not recognised within the workplace, the associated skills and
competencies are recognised by individuals as important in the
workplace and that employers implicitly expect people to have
these skills and competencies particularly for professional roles.

Using the CILIP (Chartered Institute of Information and Library
Professional) definition the individuals in the study felt that they
have these skills and competencies although there was an
indication that for some their evaluation skills particularly of Internet
resources could be improved upon. As the Internet is one of the
main information resources organisations provide for their
employees this suggests an area that workplaces need to tackle
with learning geared towards the skills and competencies
individuals need to evaluate Internet resources rather than rely on
attendance at an Internet Explorer course.

Given that the Internet was in many cases the most used
information resource, it was not surprising to learn that this is the
way most organisations use to satisfy their information needs.
However the research identified that employers are at risk of an

April 2007 2


over reliance on technology‘s capacity to hold ever increasing
amounts of information especially the organisation‘s Intranet and
the world wide web and underestimating their employees‘ skills in
managing, accessing and evaluating the information they find
without suffering from information overload or only utilising the
sources of information they are familiar with or find easy to use.
Further research is required to look at linking information literacy to
a key business competency or problem such as information
overload and then linking it to either existing or newly created
information literacy workplace learning programmes.

The research also suggests that a person‘s profession plays a key
role of their view of and relationship with information and
subsequently the level of information literacy skills and
competencies required. This is demonstrated by the quantity
surveyor who saw the skills and competencies of information
literacy as ―essential tools‖ for his job and expressed the view that
―an employee with higher information literacy skills is more useful
to an employer than one who hasn‘t‖. As quantity surveyors are
involved in costing information this may provide an opportunity for
further research exploring the costs to businesses if employees
lack information literacy skills.

April 2007 3


Contents Table

Acknowledgements ..................................................................1

Abstract ......................................................................................2

Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................7

1.1 Background to the research project ........................... 7

1.2 Research Aims and Objectives .................................. 9

1.3 Report Structure ....................................................... 10

Chapter 2 Literature Review ................................................11

2.1 Introduction .............................................................. 11

2.2 Lifelong learning ....................................................... 11

2.2.1 Employability in today‘s global economy .................. 13

2.3 Learning Organisations ............................................ 13

2.4 Learning Theories and Styles ................................... 18

2.4.1 Learning Theories .................................................... 18

2.4.2 Learning Styles ........................................................ 22

2.5 Information skills and Information literacy ................ 25

2.5.1 Information Skills ...................................................... 25

2.5.2 Information literacy ................................................... 26

2.5.3 Information literacy definitions .................................. 27

2.5.4 Information literacy in the workplace ........................ 30

2.5.5 Information literacy and the lifelong learning agenda ...
…………………………………………………………………...35

2.6 Knowledge Management.......................................... 37

April 2007 4


Chapter 3 Methodology.........................................................39

3.1 Research methodologies.......................................... 39

3.2 Research .................................................................. 40

3.3 Rationale for the chosen method ............................. 41

3.3.1 Interviews ................................................................. 41

3.3.2 Semi structured Interviews ....................................... 41

3.3.3 Exploratory Interviews .............................................. 42

3.4 Interview questions .................................................. 42

3.4.1 Rationale for interview questions ............................. 43

3.5 Piloting of questions ................................................. 46

3.6 Selection of sample .................................................. 46

3.7 Limitations ................................................................ 47

3.8 Analysing the results ................................................ 49

Chapter 4 Analysis of Data Findings..................................49

4.1 The skills employers are looking for .............................. 50

4.2 Learning in the workplace ........................................ 50

4.3 Information skills ...................................................... 52

4.4 Information Literacy .................................................. 54


4.5.1 How their organisation satisfies their information needs
……………………………………………………………………56

4.6 Research Limitations ................................................ 57

Chapter 5 Discussion of Results ........................................58

5.1 The skills employers are looking for ......................... 59

5.2 Learning in the workplace ........................................ 59

5.3 Information skills / Information Literacy .................... 62
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5.4.1 How their organisation satisfies their information
needs ………. ..................................................................... 65

Chapter 6 Conclusions.........................................................67

A better understanding of the role of information literacy
in the workplace and the attitudes of employers to
information literacy .............................................................. 68

Levels of information literacy skills and competencies, how
this varies in different working environments and does
information literacy have a direct value to employers and
employees which can be calculated? .................................. 69

How skills imparted in education extend to the workplace .. 70

Information literacy research in relation to the workplace
and lifelong learning ............................................................ 71

Further Research ................................................................ 71

The relevance of the findings to the student‘s own
professional context ............................................................ 72

References ...............................................................................74

Appendix A: Information literacy: the skills........................81

Appendix B: Semi structured interview questions ............85

April 2007 6


Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Background to the research project
The Department of Learner Support at Glasgow Caledonian University
(GCU) has a substantial background in survey, research and
evaluation work (Crawford, 2004). More recently this work has focused
on the information literacy agenda as a result of the evaluation of the
usage of electronic information services by staff and students at GCU
(Crawford, 2003; Crawford, 2004) and as a result of the Drumchapel
Project (McLelland & Crawford, 2004). The original aim of the
Drumchapel Project was to evaluate the ICT (information
communication and technology) skills of pupils there but the outcomes
suggested the need for a strong focus on information literacy skills
training among secondary school pupils.

In other words their ability to:

know when and why they need information, where to find it,
and how to evaluate, use and communicate it in an ethical
manner.

This definition by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information
Professionals (CILIP) Information Literacy Group implies several skills
(or competencies) are required if an individual is to be information
literate. They are an understanding of:

a need for information
the resources available
how to find information
the need to evaluate results
how to work with or exploit results
ethics and responsibility of use
how to communicate or share your findings
how to manage your findings.

CILIP (2006)
April 2007 7


The main finding common to all three studies was the strong
emergence of an information literacy agenda and the need to develop
strategies to manage and develop it. However what was equally clear
was the need for a holistic vision. Much of the work being done in the
HE (higher education) sector is focused exclusively on the
undergraduate but it is clear that what is needed is a strategy which
links the secondary and the tertiary sectors and recognises the lifetime
of work to come, an information literacy lifelong learning agenda in
other words. This intimate link between information literacy and
lifelong learning is recognised in the IFLA (International Federation of
Library Associations), 2003 statement, ‘Information Literacy for lifelong
learning.

The result of all this research has been to focus attention on an
information literacy strategy which links secondary and tertiary
education and encourages the secondary and tertiary sectors to work
together. The Information literacy skills – the link between secondary
and tertiary education project is an innovative national pilot to develop
an information literacy framework with secondary and tertiary partners
which, at the end of the project, can be rolled out to other participants.
It will aim to produce secondary school leavers with a skill set which
further and higher education can recognise and develop or which can
be applied to the world of work directly (Glasgow Caledonian
University, 2005).

As a result of the current Information literacy skills – the link between
secondary and tertiary education project, a new strand has emerged

the need to recognise the lifelong learning agenda. It is
necessary to look beyond education and research how the
information literacy agenda is carried over into the world of
work (Irving & Crawford, 2006, p.39).

April 2007 8


This new strand ties in with similar research questions identified by
Crawford (2006, p43)

We need to know more about how the skills we impart extend
to the workplace and how these skills may be refined to benefit
the future employee. We need to know more about the
workplace and attitudes of employers. Some employers are
clearly more sympathetic to the information literacy agenda
than others. What factors predispose them one way or another?

Does information literacy have a direct value to employers and
employees which can be calculated?

The result of these research questions has prompted the basis of this
research project.

1.2 Research Aims and Objectives
Whilst it is not feasible for this small based exploratory study to
answer all of the above questions hopefully it will provide some
answers plus contribute and facilitate further research in this area.

The aim of this research is to look at the role of information literacy in
addressing a specific strand of lifelong learning: the work agenda.

Specific objectives
to gain a better understanding of:
o the role of information literacy in the workplace and
o the attitudes of employers to information literacy
to gauge levels of information literacy skills and competencies
and consider how this varies in different working environments.
Outcomes:
contribution towards information literacy research in relation to
the workplace and lifelong learning
contribution towards how the skills imparted in education
extend to the workplace
April 2007 9


contribution towards the question of ‗Does information literacy
have a direct value to employers and employees which can be
calculated?

1.3 Report Structure

The report is composed of six sections.

1. An introduction looking at the background to the study and

specifying the research project and its objectives.

2. A critical evaluation of the relevant theoretical debates,

literature and research which locates the research in the wider

literature context of current academic and professional

discourse.

3. The methodology chosen for the research and a rationale for

the method chosen including any potential limitations plus how

the questions were developed and the sample selected.

4. Analysis of the data findings,

5. Discussion of the results and how they relate to the wider

issues discussed in the literature review.

6. Conclusions which will look at how far the objectives were met,

what new insights are offered, how these relate to prior work

and what the implications are for the overall success of the

research or project and for further research.

April 2007 10


Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
The literature review is composed of the following five sections:

1. lifelong learning specifically skills and employability

2. the learning organisation

3. learning theories and styles

4. information skills and information literacy including the role
information literacy plays in the workplace and the lifelong
learning agenda

5. knowledge management.

2.2 Lifelong learning
Whilst lifelong learning would suggest cradle to the grave for all
learning whether formal, informal or non formal, the term is commonly
used in relation to learning that takes place in post sixteen education
and adult education (Brookes, 2006) particularly in relation to
employability skills undertaken on a formal basis within educational
institutions and learning centres.

An emerging strand of lifelong learning is the learning that takes place
in the workplace. As Watts (2000 cited in Onnismaa) states
Workplaces are engines of learning as well as of production,
and more and more jobs require ―multiskilling‖. Learning no
longer precedes work rather learning is interwoven with work,
on a lifelong basis (p.34 -35).

The recognition of learning often informal or non-formal and non
credited learning that is taking place in the workplace may be the
result of several factors including the need to keep employment skills
current and recognisable whether due to CPD (continuing professional
development), annual appraisals or simply to keep employed.

April 2007 11


It is understandable therefore that the focus of lifelong learning is seen
in regard to employment as learning and education has traditionally
been in preparation for the world of work. Brookes (2006, p.39)
however points out that ‗as the 21st century continues education
should become a process through which people acquire the capacity
to meet the challenges of living and working in an increasingly diverse
world.‘ In other words we need to learn how to learn and be equipped
with generic skills such as problem solving, critical thinking and
evaluation so that we can deal with any new situation that arises.

Harrison et al. (2002, p.1) makes the same point encompassing the
cradle to the grave concept
Learning as a preparation for life has been displaced by
learning as an essential strategy for successful negotiation of
the life course, as conditions in which we live and work are
subject to ever more rapid change.

In contemporary conditions learning becomes not only
‗lifelong‘, suggesting learning as relevant throughout the life
course, but also ‗life-wide‘, suggesting learning as an essential
aspect of our whole life experience, not just that which we think
of as ‘education‘.

This life-wide aspect can be found reflected in the Scottish Executive‘s
(2003, p.7) definition that lifelong learning is about ‗personal fulfilment
and enterprise; employability and adaptability; active citizenship and
social inclusion‘. It also sees lifelong learning as encompassing ‗the
whole range of learning: formal and informal learning, workplace
learning, and the skills, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours that
people acquire in day-to-day experiences.‘

Although lifelong learning is not a ‗wonder drug or magic bullet that, on
its own, will solve a wide range of educational, social and political ills‘
(Coffield, 2002, p174). We do live and work in a world that is ‗subject
to ever more rapid change‘ which requires us to continually learn to
‗obtain and keep employment‘ (Harrison et. al, 2002, p1).

April 2007 12


2.2.1 Employability in today‟s global economy
Within the UK there is a consensus of opinion linking lifelong learning
to employability and the need for individuals to educate / equip
themselves with the skills that employers are seeking from a 21st
century workforce to survive and succeed in today‘s economy due to
globalisation and technology. Coffield (2002) warns that the elements
within this consensus are problematic and ‗offers comforting illusion
that for every complex problem there is one simple solution‘ (p183).

This is reflected in a recent British government report by the
Department for Education and Skills (2005) that highlighted the
importance of skills both for the individual and businesses:

Skills are fundamental to achieving our ambitions, as
individuals, for our families and for our communities. They
help businesses create wealth and they help people realise
their potential. So they serve the twin goals of social justice
and economic success. (p. 1)

As many of these skills are technology led and technology is growing
exponentially, it is not surprising that learning has become life long as
no business or individual can afford to stand still for if they do they find
themselves no longer able to provide the services or products required
and are subsequently left behind.

Within the workplace the organisation has a role to play in their
employees learning where employees do not have the required skills.
The organisation‘s actions in relation to any learning required
determine whether they are a ‗learning organisation‘.

2.3 Learning Organisations
Senge (1990 cited in Keep and Rainbird 2002 p.65) defined a learning
organisation as
where people continually expand their capacity to create the
results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns
of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set
April 2007 13


free, and where people are continually learning to learn
together.

Although Keep and Rainbird (2002, p.65) see the concept offered as
an idealised model that is at ‗odds with the product market strategies
of many organizations and weak in its conceptualisation of power
relations in the workplace‘. They do however feel it provides a broad
strategic framework for skills, training and development policies to be
located enabling learning to become ‗the chief organizational principle
around which business strategy and competitive advantage can be
developed‘.

For businesses to be highly competitive and have economic success
in today‘s global market requires employees with the right skills at the
right time to deliver the right product or service. Training employees to
have the right skills takes time and money and employers generally
look for a return on any investment they make in their employee/s.
Given that businesses are there to make money it is not surprising that
some employers take the above human capital point of view and
assume economic rationality (Schuller and Field, 2002) with regard to
their employees‘ skills. Businesses therefore tend to prefer to employ
employees with the right skills rather than outlay the training costs
themselves and face the possibility of another employer benefiting
from their outlay.

Although the more enlightened employer recognises that they will
benefit from an increase in the skills level of their employees the
power over what training, if any, is offered to the employee or learning
achieved in the workplace lies with the employer and managers. As
Hager (2004, p.23) points out ‗there is no doubt that many
contemporary work arrangements discourage learning, let alone
lifelong learning‘.

April 2007 14


There is as Bierema and Eraut (2004) highlight a ‗prevailing
assumption‘ that ‗learning and work are separate activities‘ and whilst
‗this may be sometimes true … very often learning and working occur
at the same time and sometimes, as in problem solving, they are
identical‘(p.5).

Within the workplace learning agenda, a new player has emerged -
trade unions and their partners are now encouraged to ‗assist learning
in its widest sense‘ (STUC 2002 cited in Glasgow Caledonian
University. Scottish Centre for Work Based Learning 2005b, p.7). The
Trade Union movement Union Learning Representatives are
‗responsible for promoting learning and offering advice and guidance
to fellow workers‘ (ibid). At Glasgow Caledonian University this has
resulted in cleaning staff having the opportunity to undertake ICT
(information communication and technology) skills training at a time
that suits them early in the morning.

Eraut et al. (2002, p.107) identifies that the learning within an
organisation was either ‗facilitated by or constrained by (a) the
organisation and allocation of work and (b) the social climate of the
work environment‘. In addition
a major factor affecting a person‘s learning at work is the
personality, interpersonal skills, knowledge and learning
orientation of their manager. While approaches to management
development normally emphasise motivation, productivity and
appraisal, comparatively little attention is given to supporting
the learning of subordinates, allocating and organising work,
and creating a climate that promotes informal learning.

Felstead et al. (2005) also supports this position and reported
evidence of the importance of line management support for learning in
the data they collected.

April 2007 15


According to Keep and Rainbird (2002, p.66) the learning that takes
place within a learning organisation can be identified in three different
states:
1. Individuals within an organization learning things
2. organizational learning – where the organization as
an entity starts to develop ways in which it can learn
lessons collectively
3. the learning organization – where the central
organizational goal is systematic learning.

The factors discussed above all add to the complexities of learning in
the workplace and in turn lifelong learning. However how a person
learns also needs to be taken into consideration.

The other consideration as Gerber (1998) states is that ‗the
importance of understanding how people learn in their work is a recent
phenomenon in professional and workplace learning‘ and proposes
that ‗workers may use more than one way of learning in their work
depending on the circumstances of their learning experience‘ (p.171).
He reports eleven different ways, which are:

1. by making mistakes and learning not to repeat the mistake
2. through self-education on and off the job
3. through practising one‘s personal values
4. by applying theory and practising skills
5. through solving problems
6. through interacting with others
7. through open lateral planning
8. by being an advocate for colleagues
9. through offering leadership to others
10. through formal training; and
11. through practising quality assurance.

By ‗understanding how the workers in their context learn …managers
may be able to develop programmes that are relevant to the
April 2007 16


workplace, policy requirements and to the workers‘ learning style‘
(Gerber, 1998, p.175).

More recently data collected by Felstead et al. (2005) on how
‗individual employees rated various activities in terms of their
helpfulness in enhancing work capabilities‘ (p368) showed that:

Over half (51.8%) reported that simply doing the job had helped
them learn most about how to improve. 32.9% reporting it was
quite a lot of help.
Almost nine out of ten respondents said that their job required
them to learn new things and pass on tips to colleagues, and a
similar proportion agreed that they had picked up most of their
skills through on-the-job experience.
Not all work activities proved to be as helpful. The use of the
Internet, for example, to download materials, participate in e-
learning and seek out information was regarded as being of no
help at all to almost half the sample (49.7%).
Activities more closely associated with the workplace—such as
doing the job, being shown things, engaging in self-reflection
and keeping one‘s eyes and ears open, i.e. facets associated
with learning as participation—were reckoned to provide more
helpful insights into how to do the job better. All of these factors
were rated as more helpful sources of learning than attending
training courses or acquiring qualifications. (ibid).
A quarter (25.3%) reported that reading books, manuals and
work-related magazines helped quite a lot.
Using skills and abilities acquired outside of work was reported
by 19% as a great deal of help and quite a lot of help by 29.4%.

These findings have implications for learning in the workplace, lifelong
learning and information literacy programmes.

April 2007 17


2.4 Learning Theories and Styles
The area of learning, learning theories and styles is complex and
highly contested. Hall & Mosely (2005) state that
While the skills and understandings underpinning lifelong
learning are widely assumed by policy-makers and practitioners
to be well delineated, generic and transferable, our review of
the field of learning styles [carried out by Coffield et al]
indicated that there is still a great deal of difference between
theorists about the component elements of learning and
learning styles (p248).

2.4.1 Learning Theories
Although there are different learning theories, most of them rely on
stimulus but also calling for engagement in learning through either
new knowledge or with the learner‘s own environment (Rogers, 2002).
Among the theories that have been influential over the last half century
are:
learning as behaviour
learning as understanding
learning as knowledge construction
learning as emancipation
learning as social practice

Of interest to this research are learning as understanding, learning as
knowledge construction, learning as social practice.

Whilst learning as understanding is linked to ‗processing information
and internalising it as knowledge‘ there is the risk that ‗learners will
leave with the experience of ‗knowing that‘ but not ‗knowing how‘.
Learning through constructing one‘s own knowledge enhances the
‗personal experiences and understanding‘ could therefore lead to
achieving both the ‗knowing that‘ and ‗knowing how‘ (Glasgow
Caledonian University. Scottish Centre for Work Based Learning,
April 2007 18


2005a, p.2). This resonates with some of the discussions surrounding
generic and transferable skills and learning to learn, the later a term
which as Hall and Moseley (2005, p253 citing Pumphrey and Slater,
2002) identify is

increasingly promoted as an alternative to specific skills
-based initiatives, in particular in terms of satisfying employers‘
demands for workers with generic and transferable skills:
organization, interpersonal skills, flexibility and self-motivation.

Learning as a social practice rather than an individual activity is a view
held by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. Wenger (2002) points out
that
Since the beginning of history, human beings have formed
communities that share cultural practices reflecting their
collective learning; from a tribe around a cave fire, to a
medieval guild, to a group of nurses in a ward, to a street
gang, to a community of engineers interested in brake
design. Participating in these ‗communities of practice‘ is
essential to our learning. It is at the core of what makes us
human beings capable of meaningful knowing (p163).

According to Wenger (1998, cited in Wenger 2002, p163 - 164) there
are three elements that define a community of practice:
1. members are bound together by their collectively developed
understanding of what their community is about and they hold
each other accountable to this sense of joint enterprise
2. members build their community through mutual engagement.
They interact with one another, establishing norms and
relationships of mutuality that reflect these interactions. To be
competent is to be able to engage with the community and be
trusted as a partner in these interactions.

April 2007 19


3. communities of practice have produced a shared repertoire of
communal resources … to be competent is to have access to
this repertoire and be able to use it appropriately.

Within recent years there has been an increase in the use of the term
with the creation of professional online discussion lists and subject
networks being called ‗communities of practice‘. An example of this is
the Scottish Further Education Unit‘s Communities of Practice (SFEU,
2007) who describe a Community of Practice as:

a group of people who share the same profession, situation or
vocation. These communities facilitate professional exchange,
allowing members to establish a bond of common experience
or challenges (SFEU, 2007a).

Whilst the above community of practice could be said to have the
three elements that Wenger uses to define a community of practice
(see above) they do not generally have a shared task which is the
basis of Lave and Wenger conception of a community of practice.

In addition to community of practices working on a joint enterprise,
colleagues learn from each other (Eraut, 2004, Harrison et. al, 2002
also identified that we learn from friends, parents and children) and
use each other as an informal source of information, knowledge and
support (this view of people as an information resource ties in with
information literacy beliefs and practices). It also reflects the Chartered
Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) communities
which are described as ‗an evolving space for members to share and
learn from each other‘ (CILIP Communities, 2006a).

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From the findings of a study of the mid-career learning of
professionals, technicians and managers in health, engineering and
business sectors Eraut (2004, p2) identified that

the most common form of learning from other people takes the
form of consultation and collaboration within the immediate
working group: this may include teamwork, ongoing mutual
consultation and support or observations of others in action.
Beyond the immediate work environment, people sought
information and advice from other people in their organisation,
from customers or suppliers or from wider professional
networks. This was often done on a reciprocal basis.

He describes this type of network in relation to learning as building
networks of contacts for:

finding out how to get things done

getting advice on the culture and micro-politics of the
department … (p21).

Learning from experience was also highlighted as a principle finding of
the above study as most of the learning was

non-formal, neither clearly specified nor planned. It arose
naturally out of the demands and challenges of work-solving
problems, improving quality and/or productivity, or coping with
challenge – and out of social interactions in the workplace with
colleagues, customers or clients. Much learning at work derives
its purpose and direction from the goals of the work, which are
normally achieved by a combination of thinking, trying things
out and talking to other people (p1).

This reflects the work of Gerber (1998) discussed earlier.

April 2007 21


2.4.2 Learning Styles
The way in which we learn or prefer to learn can be linked to a
particular learning style. For some this is by experiencing information
through sight, hearing, feeling or touch whilst for others the experience
is more abstract in that they have to have a visual or mental picture.
This is then followed up by either doing something with the information
or by thinking about it. Kolb identified these learning activities as
perception and processing and produced a learning cycle
incorporating the four activities referred to above.

April 2007 22


Honey and Mumford (1992) subsequently adapted Kolb‘s original
cycle:

They identified that in relation to the different stages of the cycle
people learn / prefer to learn in four different ways:
activists who tend to ask ‗how‘
reflectors who tend to ask ‗why‘
theorists who tend to ask ‗what‘ and
pragmatists who tend to ask ‗what if‘

(Glasgow Caledonian University. Scottish Centre for Work Based
Learning, 2005a).

Whilst Kolb focuses on ‗the process of experience and variety in
learning‘ Honey and Mumford, ‗emphasize the diagnostic elements of
the learning cycle in terms of finding and building upon strengths‘ (Hall
& Mosely, 2005, p248).

Coffield et al (2004) however raises questions about learning styles
(71 learning style models published between 1902 and 2002 were
identified) analysing some of the major models in depth (including
Honey and Mumford‘s labels for learners as activities, reflectors,

April 2007 23


theorists and pragmatists) and assessing their reliability and validity.
The outcome was to show that there are a multitude of things that
impact on someone‘s learning and it is unwise to rely on just one
particular theory or style as important aspects necessary for effective
learning may be missed. Hall and Moseley (2005, p254) report that
they ‗hope that having a single learning style will cease to be the
fashion, given the limits that this can place on the learner‘s ambitions
and other‘s expectations of them‘.

In practice learners use a range of learning styles to suit their
preferences, experiences and situation and some may use them all at
some time or other‘ (Rogers, 2002). In his investigations Gerber
(1998) emphasises the point that ‗people in workplaces should value
all of these ways of learning and not prize one or two‘ (p.171). He
identified eleven ways of learning in the workplace (they are listed at
the end of the learning organisation section).

Whilst this research project does not explore the interviewees‘ learning
styles this section of the literature review does provide useful
background information into the discussion of the relevant theoretical
debates, literature and research in this area which will inform the
research in this small based exploratory study to be undertaken.
However as Hall and Moseley (2005, p254) suggest ‗the outcome of
engaging with style should be strategy‘ and for any future potential
research / development work in developing information literacy
learning strategies within the workplace a more comprehensive
literature review would be required to unravel the complexities of
learning strategies including learning and motivation (Bostrom &
Lassen, 2006).

April 2007 24


2.5 Information skills and Information literacy

Information literacy has been known by many different names:
library orientation; bibliographic instruction; user education;
information skills training. Each has built on the other.

Information skills training and finally information
literacy concentrates on cognitive and transferable skills, such as
problem solving, evaluation and communication skills.
CSG Information Literacy Group (2006)

Although the term information literacy has evolved from information
skills training as outlined above. The term information skills is still in
common usage as some library and information professionals believe
it is a more user friendly term.

2.5.1 Information Skills
Sutton (1998) describes information skills as:

skills that will help you search, find, evaluate and present
information. In short, they will allow to you to use information …
[and] may be explained by the following diagram:

The diagram is particularly useful as it demonstrates the information
process as cyclical and iterative rather than linear, which the written
definition on its own may imply.

JISC (Joint Information System Committee) also emphasis this cyclical
and iterative process in their i-skills model for students and staff. This
model is looked at later within the section on definitions.
April 2007 25


2.5.2 Information literacy
The literature identifies that the development and need for information
literacy was brought about by the changing world in particular that
brought about by technology. As Andretta (2005) states:
rapid technological changes together with the proliferation of
information sources that have initiated the shift from library
instruction to information literacy p10).

the literature clearly illustrates, information literacy has
developed to address the requirements generated by
phenomena such as information overload caused by the rapid
developments in digital technologies, by the needs of the
information society for competent information consumers, and
to meet the requirements of the knowledge economy for a
responsive workforce (p2).

Within her book Information Literacy: A Practitioner’s Guide (Andretta,
2005) she covers ‗environmental factors in the shift to information
literacy‘ (p10) and highlights the following:

The ALA‘s (American Library Association) progress report in 1989:
To respond effectively to an ever-changing environment, people
need more than just a knowledge base, they also need
techniques for exploring it, connecting to other knowledge
bases, and making practical use of it. In other words the
landscape upon which we used to stand has been transformed,
and we are being forced to establish a new foundation called
information literacy. (Owusu-Ansah, 2004: 4)

The ACRL (Association of College and Research Libraries)
Information Literacy Competency Standards for HE (ACRL, 2000):

Because of escalating complexity of this [digital] environment,
individuals are faced with diverse, abundant information
choices – in their academic studies, in the workplace, and in
their personal lives … increasingly information comes to
individuals in unfiltered formats, raising questions about its
authenticity, validity and reliability. In addition, information is
available through multiple media, including graphical, aural, and
textual, and these pose new challenges for individuals in
evaluating and understanding it. (Lichtenstein, 2000:25)

April 2007 26


2.5.3 Information literacy definitions
Although as Webb and Powis (2004) state ‗the meaning of information
literacy itself can be rather difficult to pin down‘ there are many
definitions of information literacy to be found within the literature, most
of them originating within the field of education. They all however have
some common features. For the purpose of this research definitions
that are not exclusively focused on student education are given below.

The Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL)
‗Information Literacy is the set of skills needed to find, retrieve,
analyze, and use information.‘ ACRL (2006)

On their website they refer to the ‗explosion of information output and
information sources‘ and that

It has become increasingly clear that students cannot learn
everything they need to know in their field of study in a few
years of college. Information literacy equips them with the
critical skills necessary to become independent lifelong
learners.

They also highlight that information literacy:

is not just for college students but all of us, as professionals,
in the workplace and in our personal lives. Being information
literate ultimately improves our quality of life as we make
informed decisions when buying a house, choosing a school,
hiring staff, making an investment, voting for our
representatives, and so much more. ACRL (2006)

The Joint Information Services Committee (JISC)
JISC uses the term i-skills to describe information literacy and IT skills,
which they define as:

the ability to identify, assess, retrieve, evaluate, adapt,
organise and communicate information within an iterative
context of review and reflection

April 2007 27


This ‗iterative context‘ is demonstrated in their i-skills cycle diagram.

(JISC 2005)

The JISC i-skills formula was designed as a tool for staff development,
although it followed from The Big Blue project (Manchester
Metropolitan University Library & Leeds University Library, 2002)
which had examined the development of student information skills. ‗It
became apparent that there was an equally strong argument to
investigate the development of staff use of i-skills within the workplace‘
(JISC 2005). The term i-skills is used to encompass terms such as
information skills, e-literacy, information literacy, knowledge
management and research skills. They highlight that:

Working in a rapidly growing and complex digital
environment has increased our dependency on information.
But there is increasing evidence that our information skills
are not keeping pace in any systematic fashion. We all need
help to develop the techniques we use, often unconsciously,
to handle information in our daily lives – our i-skills.

i-Skills are needed at every stage of the information cycle
and you may have a varying level of involvement at different
stages, depending on your role. In some areas you may be
required to have an expert level of i-skills. In others you will
only need a working knowledge and may depend on other
colleagues for specialist help. (JISC 2005)
April 2007 28


Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals
(CILIP)
CILIP define Information literacy as:

knowing when and why you need information, where to find it, and
how to evaluate, use and communicate it in an ethical manner.

This definition implies several skills. We believe that the skills (or
competencies) that are required to be information literate require
an understanding of:

a need for information
the resources available
how to find information
the need to evaluate results
how to work with or exploit results
ethics and responsibility of use
how to communicate or share your findings
how to manage your findings.

CILIP (2004)

See Appendix A for a more detailed explanation of the above skills.

The definition that this research uses in their discussions with the
interviewees is the above CILIP definition as it has been used for other
research undertaken by the author with HE students and sixth year
pupils (Irving, 2006) and enables comparisons to be made. In addition
the author is a member of this profession and this particular research
undertaken within the workplace was seen as an ideal opportunity to
test the definition and CIILP‘s claim that:

We have tried to encapsulate the important elements simply,
and in plain English, so that the definition can serve as a base-
line interpretation of information literacy for all communities in
the UK. The skills serve to explain in greater detail what it
means to be information literate.

Finally, we acknowledge that IL [information literacy] will mean
slightly different things to different communities; it may also
require a greater degree of skill or understanding by some
communities than others. IL is relevant (and an important skill
to be learned and used) in primary and secondary schools, in

April 2007 29


further and higher education, in business, and in leisure.
CILIP (2006)

2.5.4 Information literacy in the workplace
Although this is a little studied area compared to information literacy
within education (Crawford 2006; Cheuk 2000) particularly in relation
to higher education students, the literature review revealed a number
of research projects undertaken. Reasons for the lack of activity or
awareness of information literacy in the workplace is highlighted by
Bruce (1999) who identified that
in the workplace, employers and managers have perhaps
attended more to the need of computer and information
technology skills. As information technology becomes more
seamless and user-friendly, it is likely that attention will shift
more clearly to questions of how people are actually interacting
with, and using, the information which technology makes
available. .. . the perennial need to make decisions, problem-
solve and research, also suggests the need for employees to
be able to deal with information per se as being of primary
importance. (p33)

Whilst it is generally individuals that are referred to in relation to being
or becoming information literate, Drucker (1992 cited in Bruce, 1999)
discusses the ‗need for organisations to become information literate‘
and suggests that they ‗need to learn to ask questions such as: What
information do we need in this company? When do we need it? In
what form? How do we get it?‘ (p34).

The question of why information literacy is not given the same priority
as ‗information technology and computer literacy‘ is also raised. Bruce
goes on to answer this question and cites the term itself as not clearly
‗communicating its meaning‘ and of its association with education and
libraries and confusion with computer and information technology.
However despite these limitations she cities Much who asserted the
potential importance of information literacy to business and ‗how the
concept might be employed within the business field. Much suggests
that an emphasis on knowledge, and the making of meaning, should

April 2007 30


be employed to strengthen the value of the concept, particularly in
relation to the notion of the ‗learning organisations.‘ (Bruce, ibid)

Bruce had previously identified Seven faces of information literacy in
the workplace through her research of four types of professionals,
mainly from Australian Universities.
1. information literacy is experienced as using information
technology for information awareness and communication
2. information literacy is experienced as finding information from
appropriate sources
3. information literacy is experienced as executing a process
4. information literacy is experienced as controlling information
5. information literacy is experienced as building up a personal
knowledge base in a new area of interest
6. information literacy is experienced as working with knowledge
and personal perspectives adopted in such a way that novel
insights are gained
7. information literacy is experienced as using information wisely
for the benefit of others.

‗More than sixty individuals contributed to her study; sixteen through
semi-structured interviews and the rest by supplying written data‘.
They all fell into the category of ‗knowledge workers‘ and the different
experience of information literacy encountered … reveal[ed] a
distinctive picture of the phenomenon that is characterised by:
Varying emphases on technology
Emphasis on the capacity to engage in broad
professional responsibilities, rather than specific skills;
Social collaboration or interdependence between
colleagues, rather than an emphasis on individual
capacity;
Need for the partnership of information intermediaries;
Emphasis on intellectual manipulation of information
rather than technical skills with IT.
(Bruce, 1999, p35)

As a result of the above research Bruce determined that ‗The
relationship between workplace processes and the seven faces also
firmly establish information literacy as an important part of the
character of ‗learning organisations‘, as well as of ‗life-long learners‘.

April 2007 31


This link‘ she believed was ‗supported by the descriptions of
information literacy which reveal the importance attributed to the
phenomenon, by participants, for maintaining currency, networking,
problem-solving and maintaining a client orientation.‘ (Bruce, 1999,
p43)

Although Abell & Skelton (2005) report that ‗in the workplace, it is hard
to gain acceptance of information literacy now as it once was of
knowledge management‘ they believe that ‗the answer appears to be
to link IL [information literacy] to a key business competency or a key
business problem‘ (p44). They feel this is not difficult to do and that
‗this direct link provides the opportunity to demonstrate real benefits to
individuals and the organisation‘ (p45). They state that:

Organisations need people who can both collect and connect –
information literate people operating in a knowledge
management environment.
and
Business leaders who have recognised the value of KM
[knowledge management] should not have a difficulty in ‗joining
the dots‘ with IL. The demands of the modern organisation call
for a workforce where IL is fostered, encouraged and
recognised. In an age of information overload, IL skills are as
essential as basic literacy and numeracy.

Earlier research by Cheuk (2002) conducted across the commercial
sector agreed with the above findings and in addition identified the
impact that poor skills can have on workplace effectiveness:
There is a continuous cycle in the creation and use of
information in the work settings. Employees create
information and share it with other colleagues. Employees
access information to add value to their own work. Yet, in
the process of going through this cycle, we see a lot of
inefficiencies, partly due to employees‘ lack of information
literacy skills (p5).

This lack of information literacy skills are illustrated by nine real-life
examples tied into the following inabilities:

April 2007 32


1. unable to determine the nature and extent of the information
needed
2. unable to retrieve information effectively from information
systems
3. not aware of the full range of resources available instead
tending to use the resources they are familiar with even though
they are not the best choice for their research purposes
4. unable to evaluate and filter information
5. information and electronic mailbox overload
6. unable to exploit technology to manage information
7. unable to relate information creation and use to a broader
context
8. unethical use of information
9. unable to evaluate the costs and benefits of information
management (p.3-5)

Cheuk (ibid) believes that these examples ‗also tell us that people are
drowning in a sea of information, they are not sure how to tackle these
problems‘ and that ‗many members of the existing workforce have not
fully equipped themselves with the necessary information literacy
skills, and they have limited opportunities to be trained in this area‘.

This lack of recognition according to Mackenzie and Makin (2003)
is possibly informed by misplaced confidence in the notion that
technology now makes the need for information skills training
redundant. The results of the project demonstrate otherwise.
The need for training is all the more imperative today, if staff
are to equipped with the appropriate skills to use information
effectively and apply those skills within an increasingly diverse
environment (p.129).

However before we try to develop or enhance these skills it is
‗important to know how individuals learn throughout their working life,
how they … [participate] in learning through work and on what basis
… [this is] exercised‘ (Billett & Pavlova 2005, p196).

Mackenzie and Makin (2003) in their study within further and higher
education institutions found that ‗staff use very few of the ranges of
resources available to them, relying instead upon those that they are
most familiar with, or comfortable using, irrespective of their fitness for

April 2007 33


purpose‘ (p.129). Robinson and Lawson (2005) show further insight
into individuals thinking following an evaluation of an information skills
training programme in the health sector:
7% of course participants also stated that they had not used
their information skills because they were not currently needed.
There seems to be a strong impression that these skills
[information skills] are to be used for research purposes rather
than for everyday use and this idea can be hard to overcome
(p.64).

On the positive side Crawford (2006) in his study of alumni students
identified that ‗The relationship of work activity to information literacy
was found to be central‘ they ‗saw it as a tool to support their work,
something which gave them a chance to exercise initiative and even
have an advantage over their colleagues. It is also a promotion skill.
Some even said that they could not do their work without it whilst
others saw it as a shared skill / learning experience with colleagues‘
p.42-43).

As Cheuk (2002) states

It is important to be information literate in the work settings
because the workplace of the present and future demands a
new kind of worker, who have to access, manage and use the
vast amount of information delivered to them through multiple
channels (e.g. phone, Internet, e-mail, printed documents,
Web-casts) and in a wide variety of formats (e.g. video, printed,
electronic text) (p2).

However although Cheuk identifies best practices that have been
adopted to promote information in the workplace she also states that
these are ‗not widely adopted in business organizations. Most
companies are still in the infancy stage of promoting information
literacy‘ (p9) and that ‘more applied research should be conducted in
the workplace settings to qualitatively and quantitatively demonstrate
the costs to business if the employees lack information literacy skills‘
(p10).

April 2007 34


Although Bruce and Cheuk are writing in respect of Australia and the
USA the research is equally valid for the UK in today‘s global
economy.

2.5.5 Information literacy and the lifelong learning agenda
In today‘s global economy the industrial society has been replaced by
the information society and as the Prague Declaration: towards an
information literate society states

Information Literacy encompasses knowledge of one‘s
information concerns and needs, and the ability to identify,
locate, evaluate, organize and effectively create, use and
communicate information to address issues or problems at
hand; it is a prerequisite for participating effectively in the
Information Society, and is part of the basic human right of life
long learning. (Brevik, 2003)

Although this has been declared a basic right the assumption made is
that information literacy is either taught in schools or learnt through
osmosis. The reality is that any learning that has taken place has been
implicit rather than explicit and either patchy or non existent resulting
in poor or inadequate level of information literacy skills (McLelland &
Crawford, 2004; Irving & Crawford, 2006; Andretta, 2005).

The life-wide importance of information literacy is clearly highlighted
by Lupton (2004 cited in Lloyd, 2005, p.83)
Information literacy is not just about finding and presenting
information it is about higher order analysis, synthesis, critical
thinking and problem solving. It involves seeking and using
information for independent learning, lifelong learning,
participative citizenship and social responsibility.

Lloyd (2005, p.85) argues that information literacy should be
‗considered as a critical element of learning‘ as it can be ‗seen as a
transformative agent, which, in the workplace, enables transformation
from novice to expert and from individual worker to team member‘ and
that:

April 2007 35


developing information literacy is viewed as contributing to
social capital by investing in the development of human capital
through ‗enlarging an individual‘s skills or knowledge base‘
(Karner, 2000: 2637) through access to a special kind of
resource, i.e. information. (p.86)

Although the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC, 2000)
reported that many UK employers consider information literacy as a
key core skill for their staff within the UK‘s knowledge based economy
this viewpoint is not supported by the recent British government report
(Great Britain. Department for Education and Skills, 2005), Skills:
Getting on in business, getting on at work. Whilst this report
specifically mentions ICT skills there is no direct mention of
information literacy skills.

However a recent interim report by HM Inspectors of Education (HMIe)
in Scotland on the Integration of Information and Communication
Technology specifically mentions information literacy and its
importance and points out this lack of application. The report identifies
that ‗Few schools had systematic approaches to developing
information literacy to ensure that all pupils acquired this set of skills
progressively as part of their passport of core and life skills‘. The
report‘s conclusions, relating to curricular planning, states that:
Schools should ensure that:
pupils ultimately achieve a cohesive ICT skills set, to prepare
them for the world of tertiary education or work including
information literacy skills. (HM Inspectors of Education, 2005,
4.14)

Further insight into the situation within schools is provided by a recent
study (Williams, 2006) which reports that ‗teachers understood
information literacy to be important for lifelong learning but do not feel
able to effectively support the development of information literacy
within their current curriculum environment‘ (p.i). They also
recognised the complexity of the subject and several [of the
participants in the study] suggested that implementation of
information literacy skills development would require additional
April 2007 36


professional training both in schools and at pre-service levels
(p.38)

The input from the learner themselves should however not be
forgotten or overlooked as Eisenburg et al. (2004 cited in Agosto, 2005)
points out that:

Our ability to be information literate depends on our willingness to
be lifelong learners as we are challenged to master new, and as
yet unknown, technologies that will surely alter the landscape of
information in the future (p.177).

From a higher education point of view Martin & Rader (2003) state in
their introduction to Information and IT Literacy – enabling learning in
the 21st century
Notions of key skills and employability underline the linkage
between what is learned in educational contexts and the use to
which it is put in employment or in everyday life. What we give
to our students is not just intended to make them better
students, but to make them more effective employees, and to
enable them to live more fulfilling lives. (xiii)

Llyod (2003, p87) stresses that ‗the lack of evidence-based research into
the transfer of information literacy from an educational context to a
workplace context has implications for our understanding of the process
and as such, for the effective teaching of information literacy
programmes that are professionally and vocationally relevant‘. She also
raise the question of ‗how much transfer of skill occurs between the
school and the workplace? Especially when the formal school
environment is linear and systematic and the work environment is
complex, messy and often difficult for the individual to navigate and map
out mentally‘ (p88).

2.6 Knowledge Management
Linked to organisational learning and information literacy is knowledge
management, as Rowley (2001) argues
learning and knowledge are closely intertwined and that
effective knowledge management needs to embrace and
April 2007 37


develop the achievements that have been associated
with the implementation of the concept of the learning
organisation (p.228).

Kelleher and Levene (2001) define knowledge management as
the capabilities by which communities within an organisation
capture the knowledge critical to them, constantly improve it
and make it available in the most effective manner to those
people who need it, so that they can exploit it creatively to add
value as a normal part of their work (p.15).

The activities within this description tie in with organisational learning
and collective learning and with the main aspects of the learning
theories regarding stimulus and engagement in learning through either
new knowledge or with the learner‘s own environment.

However in order for any learning to take place or knowledge
developed, information and the skills associated with information
(information literacy) must be engaged first, as Lloyd (2005, p.85)
states ‗without this connection, knowing and learning remain
incomplete‘.

Cheuk (2002) and Abell and Skelton (2005) identify the relationship
between information literacy and knowledge management. Whilst
Cheuk highlights the challenges that knowledge-organisations face
are information literacy related. Abell and Skellton believe that
‗workplace information literacy (IL) as a term and a concept is
following a very similar path in organisations to that of knowledge
management (KM)‘ and that there are many significant areas of
similarity between KM and IL‘ as follows:

1. Both are inextricably linked in the minds of many people with
learning – lifelong learning in the case of the individual, the
learning organisation in the case of the organisation.
2. The arguments for developing IL and KM capability within the
workplace / organisation are indisputable. Very few senior
managers deny the benefits of managing and using the

April 2007 38


organisation‘s knowledge effectively and most acknowledge
their organisation‘s need to improve its knowledge flow. Both
KM and IL underpin the way organisations work and develop.
Both such acceptance has not necessarily brought action.
3. Both are difficult concepts to ‗sell‘ in terms of business value
and outcomes. Both can be perceived as ‗nice to have‘ or
‗common sense‘ rather than a key organisational capability.
4. Both have had a problem with their label. Except for those in
the know, the terms do not immediately conjure up a clear
picture of what they mean (p44).

Whilst it would have been interesting to look at the literature on the
subject of knowledge and the different types of knowledge (e.g. tacit,
implicit) it is the relationship between information literacy and
knowledge management identified above that this research is
interested in.

Chapter 3 Methodology

3.1 Research methodologies
There are a number of different research methodologies available; Bell
(1999, p.7) highlights that ‗different styles, traditions or approaches

April 2007 39


use different methods of collecting data‘. Depending on the data to be
collected the researcher can use either quantitative or qualitative
methods.

Quantitative methods are used where the research data can be
quantified and general conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of
the data. If however the data to be collected cannot be easily
quantified particularly where the researcher is trying to gain an insight
into people‘s feelings, beliefs or experiences then qualitative methods
are used. These include interviews, focus groups and observation.

Babbie (1992, p.89) identifies that there are ‗two major aspects of
research design. First, you must specify precisely what you want to
find out. Second, you must determine the best way to do that‘ and
‗usually the best study design is one that uses more than one research
method, taking advantage of their different strengths‘.

3.2 Research
The purpose of the research was to investigate information literacy in
the work place as part of the lifelong learning agenda. In order to do
this six exploratory interviews where carried out over a two month
period (middle of February to the middle of April 2006) on a one to one
basis with individuals in a spread of occupations and interests as
detailed below:
Quantity Surveyor* – Local Authority
Development Officer Everyday Skills – Scottish Trade Union
Congress (STUC)
Mechanical Design Engineer* – Small Medium Enterprise
Senior Executive Creative Futures Team – Scottish Enterprise
(Local Enterprise Company)
Training Advisor - Local Authority
Human Resource Staff Development Manager* – University

April 2007 40


The interviews took place at a time and place that was convenient for
them. Only one of the interviews (STUC) took place in the
interviewees own place of work and three of the interviews (those
marked with an *) were carried out in the interviewees own time.

3.3 Rationale for the chosen method

3.3.1 Interviews

Interviews have been chosen as the preferred methodology, primarily
as Denscombe (2003, p.164) states researchers can use interviews to
gain ‗more of an in-depth insight into the topic, drawing on information
provided by fewer informants‘.

In addition as Babbie (1998, p.264) points out interviews can:
‗serve as a guard against confusing questionnaire items‘ as the
interviewer can ‗clarify matters, thereby obtaining relevant
responses‘
through their presence also ‗generally decrease the number of
―don‘t knows‖ and ―no answers‖ and probe for answers or follow
up on statements made‘
the interviewer can also ‗observe respondents as well as ask
questions‘.

Observations can provide valuable non-verbal information to the
research interview / process and should be noted and /or followed up.
It also allows the generation of a repertoire of issues which can inform
more qualitative based research.

3.3.2 Semi structured Interviews
Semi-structured interviews as opposed to structured or unstructured
were selected as this enabled the set list of questions to be asked and

April 2007 41


answered but allowed for flexibility in the order the areas are covered
and as Denscombe (2003, p.167) points out:

perhaps more significantly, to let the interviewee develop
ideas and speak more widely on the issues raised by
the researcher. The answers are open-ended, and
there is more emphasis on the interviewee elaborating
points of interest.

3.3.3 Exploratory Interviews
As the interviews are what Oppenheim (1997, p65) identifies as
exploratory whose purpose is:
essentially heuristic: to develop ideas and research hypotheses
rather than to gather facts and statistics. It is concerned with
trying to understand how ordinary people think and feel about
the topic of concern to the research.

The findings therefore will not be generalisable but instead provide
further research questions to be drawn from the interviews.

3.4 Interview questions
The interview questions (see Appendix B) were designed to
investigate the role of information literacy in the workplace and to
gauge levels of information literacy skills and competencies. The
questions were also designed to investigate the importance of these
skills and competencies and to see whether they were included in the
skills employer‘s where looking for in their workforce or providing
training for. As knowledge management is linked to both information
literacy and lifelong learning a small section on this was included.

The questions were divided into the following areas:
Background information
o The person‘s job title
April 2007 42


o Brief description in interviewees‘ own words of the
work they do, their experience and qualifications and
how they acquired the capability to do what they do.
o The skills employers are looking for
Learning in the workplace
Information skills
Information Literacy
Knowledge Management.

Although there is an opinion that ‗it should not be necessary to ask at
interview for background information‘ (Gorman & Clayton, 2005,
p.129) it was felt that it would put the interviewee at ease to talk a little
about themselves and the work they do plus provide an opportunity for
seeking clarification or expansion on any points they raised

3.4.1 Rationale for interview questions

Section A - Skills needed today for work:
1. What skills employers are looking for
2. Are they looking for people to have these skills prior to being
employed
3. Where they expected people to learn / acquire these skills.

Research Objectives
Although the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC, 2000)
reported that many UK employers consider information literacy as a
key core skill for their staff within the UK‘s knowledge based economy
this viewpoint is not supported by the recent British government report
(Great Britain. Department for Education and Skills, 2005), Skills:
Getting on in business, getting on at work. Whilst this report
specifically mentions ICT skills there is no direct mention of
information literacy skills.

April 2007 43


The research will investigate this situation and ascertain what skills
employers are looking for and whether these include information
literacy or not.

Section B - Learning in the workplace:
1. Type of learning offered in the workplace
2. Organisation supportive of learning in the workplace
3. Manager supportive of learning in the workplace.

Research Objectives
To investigate learning in the workplace, this needed to be explored to
establish what learning if any took place, if so what it covered and in
what form it took (formal, informal or nonformal) and in what
circumstances. In addition to determine whether any information
literacy training or learning is taking place, in any shape or form.

Section C - Information skills / Information Literacy skills:
1. Description of information task
2. How they went about this task
3. Training received to assist in the use of resources
4. Self rating of information retrieval skills
5. Planning information tasks
6. Assessment of the quality of information found
7. Use of information
8. Organisation of information
9. Review of search procedures
10. Copyright and plagiarism understanding

Research Objectives
To investigate the skills and competencies people use to carry out
information tasks related to their employment, how they rate their own
information retrieval skills and whether they had received any training

April 2007 44


to use the information resources available to them. Questions from a
similar exercise with students and senior pupils in a focus group
(Irving & Crawford 2006, Irving 2006) were used in addition to
questions from Mackenzie and Makin‘s (2003) survey of further and
higher education staff.

Section D - Information Literacy:
1. Understanding of the term information literacy
2. The extent to which they have these skills and competencies
3. Level of these skills and competencies
4. Importance of these skills and competencies
5. Improvement of these skills and competencies through work
6. Importance of information literacy at work
7. Employers looking for these skills and competencies

Research Objectives
To investigate knowledge of the term information literacy and to
investigate how the interviewees rated their information literacy skills
and competencies as defined by the Chartered Institute of Library and
Information Professionals (CILIP 2004, CILIP 2004a) and where they
had learnt these skills. Subsequent questions were devised to
investigate the importance of these skills in the workplace and whether
employers were looking for these skills explicitly or implicitly.

Section E – Knowledge Management:
1. Understanding of the term knowledge management
2. Use of knowledge management in the workplace
3. How information / knowledge is shared in the workplace
4. How organisations satisfy their information needs

Research Objectives
To explore whether the term knowledge management is known and
used by the interviewee‘s place of work and whether that gives any

April 2007 45


implications for information literacy skills and competencies as Cheuk
(2002) and Abell and Skelton (2005) believe. Also how organisations
satisfy their information needs.

3.5 Piloting of questions

All the questions used were based on something the research needed
to know and were reviewed by the research director then piloted with
an individual that fitted the characteristics of the sample. The pilot
went well and whilst none of the questions required amending, white
postcards were printed up to be handed out to make it easier for the
interviewee to respond to definitions and assessment ratings. These
cards had the added benefit of providing the interviewee with
information that they could take away for future reference, thus
furthering the term information literacy and the associated skills and
competencies.

3.6 Selection of sample
As a small number of interviews were to be undertaken (six to ten)
with representatives from specific populations that had ‗a range of
characteristics relevant to the research‘ (Gorman & Clayton, 2005
p.128) the sample was purposive. The selected populations and their
characteristics included:

1. former students contacted through the University‘s alumni
office, as further research to a recent qualitative study by
Crawford (2006) of alumni student which highlighted the
importance of information literacy in the workplace
2. trade union learning representatives contacts provided by the
Scottish Centre for Work Based Learning as individuals who
would have knowledge of workplace learning and the skills
employers were looking for

April 2007 46

The role of information literacy in addressing a specific strand of lifelong learning: the work agenda

The role of information literacy in addressing a specific strand of lifelong learning: the work agenda

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