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Aggression:
Why Do We Hurt Other People?
     Can We Prevent it?




             Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
          Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
What Is Aggression?

An aggressive action is intentional
behavior aimed at causing either
physical or psychological pain.




              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
What Is Aggression?

Hostile aggression is an act of
aggression stemming from feelings
of anger and aimed at inflicting pain.




              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
What Is Aggression?

Instrumental aggression is
aggression that serves as a means to
some goal other than causing pain.




              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
What Is Aggression?

• Is Aggression Inborn, or Learned?

 Scientists do not agree on whether
 aggression is innate or learned. The debate
 has been raging for centuries.



                Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
             Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
What Is Aggression?

• Is Aggression Inborn, or Learned?

 Freud postulated that humans have innate
 instincts toward life, Eros, and towards
 death and aggression, Thanatos.



                Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
             Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
What Is Aggression?

• Is Aggression Instinctual?
 Situational? Optional?

 Even in the most aggression-prone species,
 aggression is an optional strategy and is
 determined by the organism’s previous
 social experiences and by the specific
 social context in which the organism finds
 itself.
                Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
             Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
What Is Aggression?

• Aggressiveness and Culture

 Berkowitz (1993) suggests that humans
 seem to have an inborn tendency to
 respond to certain provocative stimuli by
 striking out against the perpetrator.


                 Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
              Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
What Is Aggression?

• Aggressiveness and Culture

 Whether or not this aggressive action is
 expressed depends on the interaction of
 these innate propensities with learned
 inhibitory responses and the nature of the
 social situation.
                Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
             Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
What Is Aggression?

• Aggressiveness and Culture

 In humans, innate patterns of behavior are
 infinitely malleable; thus, cultures vary
 widely in the degree of aggressiveness.



                 Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
              Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
What Is Aggression?

• Aggressiveness and Culture
 The evidence is inconclusive on whether or
 not aggression has an instinctual
 component, but it is clear that aggression
 can be modified by situational factors.
 Two examples of this are aggression
 among the Iroquois and the regional
 differences in aggressive behavior in the
 United States. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
              Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Chapter Outline



II. Neural and Chemical Influences
     on Aggression



              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Neural and Chemical Influences on
Aggression


The amygdala is an area in the core of
the brain associated with aggressive
behavior. But even if the amygdala is
directly stimulated, whether or not the
organism will aggress depends on
situational factors.


                 Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
              Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Neural and Chemical Influences on
Aggression

  Serotonin and Testosterone
  Serotonin is a chemical in the brain that may
  inhibit aggressive impulses.
  Testosterone is a male sex hormone
  associated with aggression. A wide variety of
  studies have shown that men are more
  aggressive than women are. However, the
  research on gender differences is complex
  and results depend on situational and cultural
  factors.        Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
               Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Neural and Chemical Influences on
Aggression

 • Alcohol and Aggression

  Alcohol serves as a disinhibitor and leads
  people to be more likely to commit actions
  frowned upon by society; thus alcohol
  can foster aggression when people are
  provoked.

                  Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
               Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Neural and Chemical Influences on
Aggression
 • Pain, Discomfort, and Aggression
  Both animal and human studies show that
  pain will increase the probability that an
  organism will aggress.

  Other forms of bodily discomfort (heat,
  humidity, air pollution, offensive odors)
  may also act to lower the threshold for
  aggressive behaviors.
                  Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
               Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Chapter Outline



III. Social Situations and
   Aggression



               Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
            Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Social Situations and Aggression

• Frustration and Aggression

 Frustration-aggression theory says that
 frustration, the perception that you are
 being prevented from obtaining a goal,
 will increase the probability of an
 aggressive response.

                 Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
              Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Social Situations and Aggression

• Frustration and Aggression

 The closer someone is to a goal, the
 greater the frustration when one is
 thwarted and the higher the probability
 that the person will act aggressively.


                 Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
              Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Social Situations and Aggression

• Frustration and Aggression

  Aggression also increases when
  frustration is unexpected. The perception
  of relative deprivation, feeling that one
  has less than one deserves or has been
  led to expect or has less than similar
  people, can increase aggressive behavior.
                 Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
              Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Social Situations and Aggression

• Aggressive Objects as Cues




                Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
             Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Social Situations and Aggression

• Imitation and Aggression

  A major cause of aggression is social
  learning. Bandura and associates (1961)
  demonstrated social learning theory, the
  theory that we learn social behavior (for
  example, aggression) by observing
  others and imitating them.
                  Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
               Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Social Situations and Aggression

• Violence in the Media: TV, Movies,
  and Video Games

 A number of long-term studies indicate
 that the more violence individuals watch
 on TV as children, the more violence they
 exhibit years later as teens and adults.


                 Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
              Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Social Situations and Aggression

• Violence in the Media: TV, Movies,
  and Video Games




                  Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
               Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
How To Reduce Aggression

• Catharsis and Aggression

 The common belief that one can “blow off
 steam” and “get it out of your system” is
 an oversimplification of Freud’s
 psychoanalytic notion of catharsis.


                Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
             Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
How To Reduce Aggression

• Catharsis and Aggression

 According to this idea, performing an
 aggressive act relieves built-up aggressive
 energies and hence reduces the likelihood
 of further aggressive behavior.


                Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
             Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
How To Reduce Aggression

• Catharsis and Aggression

 However, controlled studies suggest that
 attempting to reduce one’s anger by acting
 violently increases, rather than decreases,
 subsequent aggression and hostility.


                 Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
              Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
How To Reduce Aggression

• Catharsis and Aggression

 Research has found that when people are
 allowed to express their aggression, they
 later feel greater dislike and hostility toward
 their victims.


                 Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
              Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
How To Reduce Aggression

• What Are We Supposed to Do with
 Our Anger?


 Building empathy, for example by teaching
 empathy in school, not only reduces
 aggressiveness but also can increase self-
 esteem, generosity, and positive attitudes.

                Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
             Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Chapter Outline



V. Could the Columbine Massacre
    Have Been Prevented?



             Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
          Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Could the Columbine Massacre Have
Been Prevented?

  Aronson (2000) suggests that
  although the violent acts of the
  Columbine massacre were
  pathological, it would be a mistake to
  dismiss them as just the result of
  individual pathology.


                Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
             Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Could the Columbine Massacre Have
Been Prevented?

  What is necessary to acknowledge is
  the social situation that children and
  adolescents face in schools. Thus,
  making our schools safer by
  changing the negative, exclusionary
  social atmosphere may help reduce
  the frequency of violence in schools.

                Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
             Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions


What factors other than instinct
 determine if an animal will
 behave aggressively?



              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions

What are cultural and regional
 differences in human aggressive
 behavior that have been
 documented throughout history?
 What do these findings tell us
 about the importance of instinct
 in driving human aggression?
              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions

What roles do the amygdala and
 testosterone play in aggressive
 behavior? What effect does
 serotonin have on aggressive
 behavior? What research
 findings support the influence of
 testosterone on aggressive
 behavior?    Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions

What is the relationship between
 gender, culture, and aggressive
 behavior?




              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions


Under what conditions is the
 consumption of alcohol related
 to aggressive behavior?



              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions


How are pain and heat related to
 aggressive behavior?




              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions


How does the frustration-
 aggression theory explain
 aggressive behavior? What
 situations produce frustration?


              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions

How do aggressive stimuli
 increase the probability of
 aggressive behavior? What are
 data that support the
 relationship between aggressive
 stimuli and aggressive behavior?

              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions


How does social learning theory
 explain aggressive behavior?
 What is evidence that supports
 the explanations provided by
 this theory?

              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions


What are the assumptions of the
 catharsis hypothesis? Does
 engaging in aggressive or
 physical behavior reduce future
 aggressive behavior?

              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Study Questions


What are the advantages of
 teaching empathy in school?
 What effects could empathy
 training have on the prevention
 of school violence?

              Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e
           Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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Supplemental Content 24: Aggression

  • 1. Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent it? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 2. What Is Aggression? An aggressive action is intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 3. What Is Aggression? Hostile aggression is an act of aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 4. What Is Aggression? Instrumental aggression is aggression that serves as a means to some goal other than causing pain. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 5. What Is Aggression? • Is Aggression Inborn, or Learned? Scientists do not agree on whether aggression is innate or learned. The debate has been raging for centuries. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 6. What Is Aggression? • Is Aggression Inborn, or Learned? Freud postulated that humans have innate instincts toward life, Eros, and towards death and aggression, Thanatos. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 7. What Is Aggression? • Is Aggression Instinctual? Situational? Optional? Even in the most aggression-prone species, aggression is an optional strategy and is determined by the organism’s previous social experiences and by the specific social context in which the organism finds itself. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 8. What Is Aggression? • Aggressiveness and Culture Berkowitz (1993) suggests that humans seem to have an inborn tendency to respond to certain provocative stimuli by striking out against the perpetrator. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 9. What Is Aggression? • Aggressiveness and Culture Whether or not this aggressive action is expressed depends on the interaction of these innate propensities with learned inhibitory responses and the nature of the social situation. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 10. What Is Aggression? • Aggressiveness and Culture In humans, innate patterns of behavior are infinitely malleable; thus, cultures vary widely in the degree of aggressiveness. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 11. What Is Aggression? • Aggressiveness and Culture The evidence is inconclusive on whether or not aggression has an instinctual component, but it is clear that aggression can be modified by situational factors. Two examples of this are aggression among the Iroquois and the regional differences in aggressive behavior in the United States. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 12. Chapter Outline II. Neural and Chemical Influences on Aggression Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 13. Neural and Chemical Influences on Aggression The amygdala is an area in the core of the brain associated with aggressive behavior. But even if the amygdala is directly stimulated, whether or not the organism will aggress depends on situational factors. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 14. Neural and Chemical Influences on Aggression Serotonin and Testosterone Serotonin is a chemical in the brain that may inhibit aggressive impulses. Testosterone is a male sex hormone associated with aggression. A wide variety of studies have shown that men are more aggressive than women are. However, the research on gender differences is complex and results depend on situational and cultural factors. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 15. Neural and Chemical Influences on Aggression • Alcohol and Aggression Alcohol serves as a disinhibitor and leads people to be more likely to commit actions frowned upon by society; thus alcohol can foster aggression when people are provoked. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 16. Neural and Chemical Influences on Aggression • Pain, Discomfort, and Aggression Both animal and human studies show that pain will increase the probability that an organism will aggress. Other forms of bodily discomfort (heat, humidity, air pollution, offensive odors) may also act to lower the threshold for aggressive behaviors. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 17. Chapter Outline III. Social Situations and Aggression Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 18. Social Situations and Aggression • Frustration and Aggression Frustration-aggression theory says that frustration, the perception that you are being prevented from obtaining a goal, will increase the probability of an aggressive response. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 19. Social Situations and Aggression • Frustration and Aggression The closer someone is to a goal, the greater the frustration when one is thwarted and the higher the probability that the person will act aggressively. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 20. Social Situations and Aggression • Frustration and Aggression Aggression also increases when frustration is unexpected. The perception of relative deprivation, feeling that one has less than one deserves or has been led to expect or has less than similar people, can increase aggressive behavior. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 21. Social Situations and Aggression • Aggressive Objects as Cues Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 22. Social Situations and Aggression • Imitation and Aggression A major cause of aggression is social learning. Bandura and associates (1961) demonstrated social learning theory, the theory that we learn social behavior (for example, aggression) by observing others and imitating them. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 23. Social Situations and Aggression • Violence in the Media: TV, Movies, and Video Games A number of long-term studies indicate that the more violence individuals watch on TV as children, the more violence they exhibit years later as teens and adults. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 24. Social Situations and Aggression • Violence in the Media: TV, Movies, and Video Games Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 25. How To Reduce Aggression • Catharsis and Aggression The common belief that one can “blow off steam” and “get it out of your system” is an oversimplification of Freud’s psychoanalytic notion of catharsis. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 26. How To Reduce Aggression • Catharsis and Aggression According to this idea, performing an aggressive act relieves built-up aggressive energies and hence reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behavior. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 27. How To Reduce Aggression • Catharsis and Aggression However, controlled studies suggest that attempting to reduce one’s anger by acting violently increases, rather than decreases, subsequent aggression and hostility. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 28. How To Reduce Aggression • Catharsis and Aggression Research has found that when people are allowed to express their aggression, they later feel greater dislike and hostility toward their victims. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 29. How To Reduce Aggression • What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger? Building empathy, for example by teaching empathy in school, not only reduces aggressiveness but also can increase self- esteem, generosity, and positive attitudes. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 30. Chapter Outline V. Could the Columbine Massacre Have Been Prevented? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 31. Could the Columbine Massacre Have Been Prevented? Aronson (2000) suggests that although the violent acts of the Columbine massacre were pathological, it would be a mistake to dismiss them as just the result of individual pathology. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 32. Could the Columbine Massacre Have Been Prevented? What is necessary to acknowledge is the social situation that children and adolescents face in schools. Thus, making our schools safer by changing the negative, exclusionary social atmosphere may help reduce the frequency of violence in schools. Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 33. Study Questions What factors other than instinct determine if an animal will behave aggressively? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 34. Study Questions What are cultural and regional differences in human aggressive behavior that have been documented throughout history? What do these findings tell us about the importance of instinct in driving human aggression? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 35. Study Questions What roles do the amygdala and testosterone play in aggressive behavior? What effect does serotonin have on aggressive behavior? What research findings support the influence of testosterone on aggressive behavior? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 36. Study Questions What is the relationship between gender, culture, and aggressive behavior? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 37. Study Questions Under what conditions is the consumption of alcohol related to aggressive behavior? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 38. Study Questions How are pain and heat related to aggressive behavior? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 39. Study Questions How does the frustration- aggression theory explain aggressive behavior? What situations produce frustration? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 40. Study Questions How do aggressive stimuli increase the probability of aggressive behavior? What are data that support the relationship between aggressive stimuli and aggressive behavior? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 41. Study Questions How does social learning theory explain aggressive behavior? What is evidence that supports the explanations provided by this theory? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 42. Study Questions What are the assumptions of the catharsis hypothesis? Does engaging in aggressive or physical behavior reduce future aggressive behavior? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • 43. Study Questions What are the advantages of teaching empathy in school? What effects could empathy training have on the prevention of school violence? Aronson Social Psychology, 5/e Copyright © 2005 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.