Pastoralism in dryland areas. A case study in sub-Saharan Africa

Issue 9

PASTORALISM IN DRYLAND AREAS
A case study in sub-Saharan Africa

Comité Scientifique Français de la Désertification
French Scientific Committee on Desertification

Les dossiers thématiques
du CSFD Issue 9
Managing Editor French Scientific Committee
Richard Escadafal
Chair of CSFD on Desertification
Senior scientist, IRD (Institut de Recherche pour
le Développement) at CESBIO (Centre d’Études The creation in 1997 of the French Scientific Committee on Desertification
Spatiales de la Biosphère), Toulouse, France (CSFD) has met two concerns of the Ministries in charge of the United
Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. First, CSFD is striving to
Authors involve the French scientific community specialized on issues concerning
 Bernard Toutain, bernard.toutain@yahoo.fr desertification, land degradation, and development of arid, semiarid and
Agropastoralist, ex-CIRAD (Agricultural Research subhumid areas, in generating knowledge as well as guiding and advising
for Development, France) policymakers and stakeholders associated in this combat. Its other aim
 André Marty, marty.andre@free.fr is to strengthen the position of this French community within the global
Sociopastoralist, ex-IRAM (Institut de recherches context. In order to meet such expectations, CSFD aims to be a driving
et d’applications des méthodes de développement, force regarding analysis and assessment, prediction and monitoring,
France) information and promotion. Within French delegations, CSFD also takes
part in the various statutory meetings of organs of the United Nations
 André Bourgeot, bourgeot@ehess.fr
Convention to Combat Desertification: Conference of the Parties (CoP),
Anthropologist, CNRS (Centre National de la
Committee on Science and Technology (CST) and the Committee for
Recherche Scientifique, France)
the Review of the Implementation of the Convention. It also participates
 Alexandre Ickowicz, alexandre.ickowicz@cirad.fr in meetings of European and international scope. It puts forward
Livestock Scientist, CIRAD (Agricultural Research recommendations on the development of drylands in relation with civil
for Development, France) society and the media, while cooperating with the DeserNet International
 Philippe Lhoste, lhosteph@orange.fr (DNI) network.
Livestock Scientist, ex-CIRAD (Agricultural Research
for Development, France) CSFD includes a score of members and a President, who are appointed
intuitu personae by the Ministry for Higher Education and Research,
Contributors and come from various specialities of the main relevant institutions and
 Véronique Ancey, Socioeconomist of Pastoralism universities. CSFD is managed and hosted by the Agropolis International
Issues, CIRAD Association that represents, in the French city of Montpellier and
Languedoc-Roussillon region, a large scientific community specialised in
 Gérard Begni, Senior Expert: Environment and
agriculture, food and environment of tropical and Mediterranean countries.
Sustainable Development, CNES (Centre national
The Committee acts as an independent advisory organ with no decision-
d’études spatiales, France)
making powers or legal status. Its operating budget is financed by
 Ronald Bellefontaine, Tropical Forester, CIRAD contributions from the French Ministries of Foreign Affairs and of Ecology,
 Marc Bied-Charreton, Agroeconomist and Sustainable Development and Energy, as well as the French Development
Geographer, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin- Agency. CSFD members participate voluntarily in its activities, as a
en-Yvelines, France contribution from the Ministry for Higher Education and Research.
 Bernard Bonnet, Livestock Scientist, IRAM
More about CSFD:
 Jean-Paul Chassany, Agroeconomist,
ex-INRA (Institut National de la Recherche www.csf-desertification.org
Agronomique, France)
 Antoine Cornet, Emeritus Ecologist, IRD
 Céline Dutilly-Diane, Livestock Production
Economist, CIRAD
Editing, production and distribution of Les dossiers thématiques du CSFD
 Michel Malagnoux, Forester/Ecologist, ex-CIRAD are fully supported by this Committee through the backing of relative French
 Abdrahmane Wane, Economist of Pastoralism Ministries and the French Development Agency (AFD).
Issues, CIRAD
Les dossiers thématiques du CSFD may be downloaded from the Committee
Scientific editing and iconography website: www.csf-desertification.org
Isabelle Amsallem, Agropolis Productions
For reference: Toutain B., Marty A., Bourgeot A., Ickowicz A. & Lhoste P., 2012.
info@agropolis-productions.fr
Pastoralism in dryland areas. A case study in sub-Saharan Africa.
Les dossiers thématiques du CSFD. N°9. January 2013. CSFD/Agropolis
Design and production International, Montpellier, France. 60 p.
Olivier Piau, Agropolis Productions

Translation
David Manley

Photography credits
Bernard Bonnet (IRAM),
Diana Rechner (INDIGO Image Library,
IRD), Ibra Touré (CIRAD), Gérard De
Wispelaere (ex-CIRAD), as well as the
authors of the pictures shown in this report.

Printed by Les Petites Affiches (Montpellier, France)
Copyright registration à parution • ISSN: 1772-6964
1500 copies (also available in French)
© CSFD/Agropolis International, January 2013

Foreword

M
ank ind is now confronted w ith an issue These Dossiers are devoted to different themes such
of worldwide concern, i.e. desertification, as global public goods, remote sensing, wind erosion,
which is both a natural phenomenon and a agroecology, pastoralism, etc, in order to take stock
process induced by human activities. Our planet and of current knowledge on these various subjects. The
natural ecosystems have never been so degraded by goal is also to outline debates around new ideas and
our presence. Long considered as a local problem, concepts, including controversial issues; to expound
desertification is now a global issue of concern to all widely used methodologies and results derived from a
of us, including scientists, decision makers, citizens number of projects; and lastly to supply operational and
from both developed and developing countries. Within academic references, addresses and useful websites.
this setting, it is urgent to boost the awareness of civil
society to convince it to get involved. People must first These Dossiers are to be broadly circulated, especially
be given the elements necessary to better understand within the countries most affected by desertification,
the desertification phenomenon and the concerns. by email, through our website, and in print. Your
Everyone should have access to relevant scientific feedback and suggestions will be much appreciated!
knowledge in a readily understandable language and Editing, production and distribution of Les dossiers
format. thématiques du CSFD are fully supported by this
Committee thanks to the support of relevant French
Within this scope, the French Scientific Committee Ministries and AFD (French Development Agency).
on Desertification (CSFD) has decided to launch a The opinions expressed in these reports are endorsed
series entitled Les dossiers thématiques du CSFD, which by the Committee.
is designed to provide sound scientific information
on desertification, its implications and stakes. This Richard Escadafal
series is intended for policy makers and advisers from Chair of CSFD
developed and developing countries, in addition to Senior scientist, IRD
the general public and scientific journalists involved Centre d’Études Spatiales de la Biosphère
in development and the environment. It also aims at
providing teachers, trainers and trainees with additional
information on various associated disciplinary fields.
Lastly, it endeavours to help disseminate knowledge on
the combat against desertification, land degradation,
and poverty to stakeholders such as representatives
of professional, nongovernmental, and international
solidarity organisations.

Pastoralisme et désertification : un sujet controversé 1

Preamble

 d iver sit y (of a n i ma l a nd pla nt species a nd

I
am highly grateful to CSFD for devoting this 9th
Dossier to the topic of pastoralism in sub-Saharan physiological stages);
Africa and for inviting me to preface it.  tempora l aspects (a nima l g row t h rates, pla nt
restoration cycles, human activity patterns).
This short booklet clearly highlights the complexity
of pastoral systems in a simple straightforward and Spatiotemporal mobility is one of the key concepts
unaffected way—the term ‘complex systems’ is actually concerning life in such dryland areas under irregular
not even mentioned once! However, with abundant climatic conditions. Maps—which have long been
deta i ls a nd i l lust rat ions, pastora lism is show n based on assessments and interpretations geared
to encompass soil, vegetation, animals, humans, towards the rationalization of the use of such areas,
precipitation, runoff, water infiltration, complementary and on indexes such as the carrying capacity, etc.—
phenological features of herbaceous plant species, are unable to account for the temporal factors! This
annuals and perennials, shrubs and trees, knowledge, is critical because, as clearly outlined by the authors,
social relationships and cultural values of human rangelands are often imbalanced, and this aspect
societies. This is not a marginal issue—pastoral cannot be assessed on the basis of static measurements.
societies occur worldwide, in sub-Saharan Africa, of A third dimension is needed to account for the diversity
course, but also on many other continents. induced by spatial heterogeneity and temporal changes,
under the aegis of dynamic knowledge, which always
This pastoral world has, albeit not without difficulty, enhances the handing down, learning, testing and
eluded the streamlined optimum model that has been appropriation of innovations.
promoted throughout the world within the framework
of agricultural modernization in Europe or the Green ‘Traditional’ practices are constantly, and slowly
Revolution in developing countries. This model— but surely, being adjusted to cope with unforeseen
whose fundamental assumption is the uniformization or exogenous factors because in order to last—as in
and stabilization of production conditions—has all social or biological processes—it is necessary to
almost universally fostered development based on change, transform, adapt, but also to know how to resist
the genetic improvement of anima ls and plants, by inventing new things and creating the conditions
accompanied by essential nutrient inputs (livestock required to achieve what might seem impossible !
feed or fertilizer), disease and pest control products. These are good lessons to be learnt from pastoral
This model is in stark contrast with pastoralism, which societies, which are based on the mobility of people,
is actually based on diversity, mobility, adapting and livestock and knowledge, and are focused more on
responding to events. The buzzwords are heterogeneity resistance than resilience since their situations are
and dynamics! Achieving optimal results is not the never socially neutral. These situations are marked
overall aim—pastoralism involves trade-offs, biases by power relationships between individuals, social
and cunning that are used to come up with satisfactory groups, colonial or national administrations, NGOs,
solutions. national and international institutions, etc. Pastoral
communities are often marginalized—being regularly
The question is not to determine, as the authors ranked as poor according to international criteria,
suggest, whether “pastoralism is ecologically viable while also generally paying the price for agricultural
or not”! Pastoralism is not an academic discipline and and development policies—rather than being the
the problem is not to rank it within any discipline, i.e. focus of favourable public policies. The authors of this
ecology. Nevertheless, we researchers will only be able Dossier nevertheless suggest several potential changes
to understand this phenomenon by studying it through that could be made in these policies so as to make
a diversity of approaches, including an ecological one. them less disadvantageous. Moreover, the pastoral
communities may be forced to bear the consequences
It is necessary to focus on: of international discussions aimed at promoting a
 dynamics (seasons, multiannual cycles); decrease in meat production and consumption, at
 interactions (between humans and environments, least by people in industrialized countries. These
between humans and animals, between animals, initiatives specifically target ruminants—as if they
between animals and plants, between plants when were only reared for meat production!
they are subjected to grazing);

2 Pastoralism in dryland areas. A case study in sub-Saharan Africa

It wou ld of course be of interest to rev iew t he to economic or climatic (or other) risks and which
nutritional balance of our fellow citizens, as well generate inequalities leading to poverty, i.e. inequalities
as the ecological, energy, social and ethical costs of with respect to access to land, resources, markets,
some methods for producing meat from both ruminant education and health services. These are just a few
and nonruminant animals—the latter have a better examples of areas in which pastoral societies encounter
reputation in international reports, despite the fact difficulties—especially when the structuring nature
that they could be more criticized from social and of mobility, a fundamental feature, is denied: mobility
ethical standpoints! Note that both small and large essential for feeding herds and people, as well as for
ruminants are able to graze habitats where crops social relationships between scattered groups. Factors
cannot be grown due to problems of slope, elevation that force these people deeper into poverty could be
or irregular rainfall. Herbivores can wander about on controlled by reversing the perverse pathways leading
their own when seeking plants upon which to feed— to increased inequality and vulnerability.
which are made up of materials generated from solar
energy—and which in turn they transform into energy I will end by mentioning the resource issue—and
for labour for cultivation and movements, into meat, those who asked me to prepare this preamble are
milk, fiber, etc. Some ‘ecological preachers’ should look fully aware that this has been a pet concern of mine
closer at these extraordinary ruminant transformers in recent years. The resources do not exist as such!
a nd be more respectf ul of huma n communities They are generated by the use that is made of certain
which have symbiotically developed throughout the environmental elements by human groups. I refer to the
world alongside these animals, especially in desert, ‘functional integrity’ concept outlined by P. Thompson
mountain and wetland regions. In short, these areas and discussed by the authors in this Dossier. What
are considered to be too harsh for human activities may be a resource for a certain group at one time may
and are marginalized by development models based not be at another time or for another group. Forest
on the control and stability of cropping and livestock uses and resources, for instance, thus vary and are
production conditions, and thus on the settlement of variable depending on the time period, techniques
farming activities. Pastoral societies deserve better and the needs of societies, etc. The same applies to
than the derogatory treatment they often get because systems formed by pastoralists, their animals and the
they are a constant reminder that it is possible to rangelands they utilize. The resources of these systems
stand up against the ‘forces of progress’ and that other also have immaterial yet essential aspects, such as
value systems can turn out to be just as sustainable, herd management know-how, rangeland access and
or even more so, than those that are based on proven grazing rights, herd movement rights, etc., which are
scientific evidence. the main resource of pastoralism.

This report shows that science is also focused on such
situations with the aim of knowing * and gaining insight Bernard Hubert
into them, while helping concerned social groups in Research Director at the French
their contemporary transformations. In turn, it shows Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA)
how this is beneficial for scientific disciplines and Director of Studies at the École des hautes
academic approaches—to focus on such systems, études en sciences sociales (EHESS)
to test their own certainties and thus generate new President of Agropolis International, Montpellier, France
knowledge, questions and new avenues for research,
which could be fruitful in terms of their potential
applications and the cognitive advances that they * as highlighted by Ovid’s maxim Ignoti nulla cupido (“there is no desire for
facilitate. what is unknown”).

In particular, research is required to reach beyond
the definition or categorization of poverty, which has
never enabled a single ‘poor person’ to rise above his/
her situation. It is essential to focus more on processes
that make some people more vulnerable than others

Preamble 3

 Transhumant herder leading his dromedary
camels to grazing lands. Northern Senegal.
4 © B. Toutain
Pastoralism in dryland areas. A case study in sub-Saharan Africa

Table of Contents
Pastoralism and desertification—a controversial issue 6
Pastoralism in sub-Saharan Africa 12
Desertification and pastoral livestock herding in the Sahel 32
Towards sustainable pastoralism? 44
Key points in this Dossier 54

For further information… 56
Glossary 59
List of acronyms and abbreviations 60

5

Pastoralism and desertification–
a controversial issue

 Aridiﬁcation in the Sahel. A herd beneﬁtting
© A. Ickowicz from the shade of a tree, Kanem, Chad.

DESERTIFICATION—LAND DEGRADATION Desertification is a major current env ironmental
IN DRYLAND AREAS issue a nd a concern for huma n societ ies, while
also mobilizing policymakers in many concerned
The United Nations considers that desertification is countries. The international community began dealing
“the greatest environmental challenge of our time” with the desertification problem in 1977 following
and warns that, unless political decisions are made to the recurrent droughts occurring in the Sahel. An
combat this phenomenon, over 50 million people could internationa l conference was held in Nairobi in
migrate out of their homelands over the next decade 1977 and a programme was set up to combat the
(UN, 2007). In arid, semiarid and subhumid regions *, phenomenon.
the term ‘desertification’ refers to the degradation of
land quality and productivity. During this period of Due to the persistence of the phenomenon and its
rapid human population growth, especially in Africa, serious impacts, this topic took on a new political
the ecosystem crisis that it represents is compounded dimension during the United Nations Conference
by the fact that potential farming areas cannot be on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro
infinitely extended, they are subject to degradation in 1992. Chapter 12.0 of Agenda 21 adopted during
and even coveted by international powers. this conference concerned the management of fragile
dryland ecosystems and the prevention of drought
Desertification is defined by the United Nations effects. Decision 12.4 stipulated that an international
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) as treaty on desertification should be drawn up. A text
“land degradation in arid, semiarid and dry subhumid was written following intergovernmental negotiations
areas resulting from various factors, including climatic and then the UNCCD, which was signed in Paris in
variations and human activities.” 1994, entered into force in 1996.

* For West Africa: arid means annual rainfall of under 200 mm; semiarid
from 200 or 250 mm to 500 or 550 mm; subhumid from 550 to 1 200 mm
over a 6–8 month period.


> FOCUS | Regarding land degradation
and desertification…

From a geographical standpoint, a deser t is an
uninha b ite d a r i d a re a . D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n is the
progression towards this state involving, according
to the suffix –fication, the action of humans. The
deser tification concept applied in this Dossier is

P. Blanchon © IRD
based on the assumption that it is an evolutionary
process, while also allocating some responsibility to
human activities. This underlines the impact of human
societies on the environment but also the effects of
 Camels standing beside sand dunes in the Aïr region. Niger.
this degradation on societies, where land degradation
encompasses both ecosystems and living organisms.
Is desertification synonymous
In tropical Africa, a link is almost always noted between with ‘desert encroachment’?
a population increase and desertification*, whereas
in temperate Europe, ‘desertification’ is interpreted The desert has a specific meaning and features for both
in the sense of “the disappearance of all human geographers and ecologists. The climate is hyperarid
activity in a gradually deserted (by inhabitants) region” and typical species live in this environment. A desert
(Dictionnaire Robert). cannot be further desertified, but, conversely, a living
environment could seemingly become a desert. What is
The term ‘deser tization’ was used in the 1960s the actual situation? The discussion hereafter applies
for steppeland in North Africa ( Le Houérou, 1968) only to Sahelian Africa south of the Sahara where it has
pertaining to this evolution towards desert facies. been noted, on a temporal scale of the last few decades
Steppelands in the nor thern Sahara show severe (around half a century overall), that the ecological
degradation signs, leading to land denudation or boundaries between the Sahel and the Sahara have
oversimplification of the plant community. Overgrazing apparently not substantially varied. The geographical
by herds and land clearing for cultivation worsen the distribution of Saharan species has not expanded
impact of climatic aridification in these areas and (except for the Saharan perennial grass Panicum
it is feared that a recovery is no longer possible at turgidum, whose distribution range has extended into
these stages. However, the term ‘desertization’ was the Sahelian region by seeds being carried by cattle in
not used thereafter by the scientific community, at their fur), and that of Sahelian species adapted to arid
least in reference to tropical countries. conditions has basically remained unchanged. These
plants are good indicators of environmental conditions,
It is hard to find reliable statistics on the extent and especially rainfall patterns. Moreover, remote sensing
degree of desertification in the Sahel. An global satellite surveys have highlighted the variability in plant cover
remote sensing assessment in 1986 indicated that according to the rainfall patterns, but without any
18% of the overall area in dryland African regions extension of the Sahara (Tucker et al., 1991). Recent
south of the Sahara was degraded (Dregne, 1986). studies have even indicated an improvement in the
However, field surveys often suggest that these figures vegetation cover in some regions south of the Sahara,
are exaggerated. in pastoral areas, and also indicate a sharp and large-
scale increase in plant biomass between 1982 and
Drought is a soil moisture deficit situation in which 2003 (Herrmann et al., 2005). We therefore cannot talk
human, animal and plant water needs can no longer about desert encroachment in this part of the world.
be fulfilled. Drought is mentioned when this water However, advancing mobile sand dunes and silting may
deficit is unusual for the climate in the area and when be observed in some regions, especially in Mauritania.
it lasts long enough to be damaging. Drought differs Their cause is complex but the phenomenon cannot
from aridity, which is due to low mean rainfall or a be equated with desert encroachment.
scarcity of natural available water resources.
For further information on this topic, see:
Mainguet, 1995; Mainguet & Dumay, 2006; Berte, 2010.

* Even though the expression ‘more people, less erosion’ holds true in
some agricultural regions (Tiffen et al,.1994; Boyd & Slaymaker, 2000).


PASTORALISM—THE FORERUNNER A LONG EVOLUTION SINCE ANCIENT TIMES
OF DESERTIFICATION?
As early as Neolithic times, A frican populations
There are three main human factors that cause specialized in pastoral livestock farming, as illustrated
desertification (MEA, 2005): in some wall frescoes in the Sahara (Tassili). These
 overuse of farmland and water resources to feed a pastoralists reigned over huge grassland areas, even
rapidly growing population though they were unsuitable for settled farming
 overharvesting of natural vegetation (excessive because of the harshness of the environment and
gathering, deforestation, etc.) and its destruction scarcity of water. At the same time, to supplement
by land clearing their diversified diets and gain access to other staples,
 overgrazing of vegetation by herds, thus reducing herders practiced hunting and gathering while also
rangeland production and natural reproduction of developing trade with other farming people. The
many forage trees. climate changed in the Sahara and in and in sub-
Saharan Africa. Livestock farmers were forced to move
The present Dossier is focused on this third factor— to find habitats suitable for their activity, while each
the role of livestock farming—and is limited to one time tailoring their lifestyle and production to the
large region in the world where pastoralism * is still prevailing conditions.
one of the main economic activ ities, i.e. dr yland
tropical West and Central Africa. In pastoral areas O ver t he la st cent u r y, t he i ncred ible i ncrea se
of this broad subregion, cattle are often blamed as in t he g loba l popu lat ion a lso a f fected pastora l
being the main factor responsible for environmental environments. The dramatic political, economic and
degradation. Is this criticism warranted? This Dossier social transformations that this generated everywhere
provides some answers. were compounded, in the pastoral setting, by other
substantial changes, in addition to the impact of
A review of the different types of pastoralism in the climate change, especially the increase in pressure
world highlights a surprisingly broad range of different on natural and anthropogenic environments. These
pastoral environments, from pre-Arctic regions to changes did not alter the progress of pastoralism and
tropics, mountains to plains, arid lands to swamps (see its extension into many regions worldwide. Although
for example Faye, 2008). The socioeconomic settings pastora lists seem to be going t hrough t he same
are also highly varied. However, some features are moves as pastoralists have since ancient times, the
comparable in the social and familial organization, in pastoral livestock-farming system has been constantly
the techniques applied, in the relationship of humans evolving—nowadays herding knowledge is passed on
with animals and of societies with other social groups. from generation to generation, but pastoralists apply
and tailor it to the prevailing situation in order to
be able to quickly take advantage of opportunities
that arise and cope with the constraints encountered.
* Terms defined in the glossary (page 59) are highlighted in blue in the text. It is a survival strategy.

20°0'0"O 10°0'0"O 0°0'0" 10°0'0"E 20°0'0"E 30°0'0"E 40°0'0"E 50°0'0"E

Climatic zones
20°0'0"N

20°0'0"N

Arid Humid
Desert Semiarid
Mountainous Subhumid

0 195 390 780 Km
10°0'0"N

10°0'0"N

20°0'0"O 10°0'0"O 0°0'0" 10°0'0"E 20°0'0"E 30°0'0"E 40°0'0"E 50°0'0"E

 Climatic zoning of dry regions in sub-Saharan Africa between Senegal and Somalia. I. Touré © CIRAD-PPZS

Sahelian countries in West Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria • Sahelian countries in Central Africa: Chad, Cameroon
Source: FAO


M-N. Favier © IRD  Rock paintings in the Akakus region. Libya.

> FOCUS | A few figures… The Sahelian stock is increasing, even though a
downturn occurred during the severe droughts of
The estimates are from various national (State statistics) 1972 and 1973.
and international (Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, FAO) sources concerning the Head number
(in millions)
livestock-farming and pastoralism sector. However, data
10
on herds in West and Central Africa are not precise Small ruminants
and are often underestimated.

7,5 Cattle
Just in the 15 countries of the Economic Community
of West African States (ECOWAS), i.e. all countries
between Cameroon and Senegal ( but excluding
5
Mauritania, Chad and the Central African Republic,
where pastoral farming is widely practiced), the pastoral
area, strictly speaking, covers 25% of the territory
2,5
(Ly et al., 2010). In the 1990s, pastoralism provided a
living for 16% of the 35 million inhabitants in Sahelian
countries alone (Bonfiglioli & Watson, 1992).
0
1966 1976 1996 2005 2009
For all of the following Sahelian countries—Mauritania,
 Livestock herd patterns in Chad from 1966 to 2009
Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger and Chad—FAO (ﬁgure on page 29 shows the geographical distribution).
statistics indicate the following overall livestock numbers
in 2009: Sources:
1966, 1996: Ministère de l’Agriculture et de la Production animale, Chad
 cattle: 39.7 million head 1976: Direction de l’Élevage, Chad
 sheep: 45.8 million 2005: Wane, 2006 from FAOSTAT 2005
2009: FAOSTAT, 2011
 goats: 52.4 million
 camels: 5.7 million

Out of this population, a high proportion is strictly
pastoral, while the rest is mainly agropastoral, therefore
partially pastoral, with a small share being periurban.


 A herd of small ruminants at a watering point,
© B. Toutain Ferlo, Senegalese Sahel.

PASTORALISM TODAY AND TOMORROW
This Dossier aims to address some questions that The first part of this Dossier presents sub-Saharan
livestock-farming and environmental policymakers pastoral livestock-farming systems, their motivations,
are currently asking: history, specific features and difficulties, along with
the benefits they offer people in concerned countries.
 Does pastora lism—a ver y extensive economic
activity—have a future? The second part is focused on interactions between
 How will pastoralism fare in the development of pastoralism and natural resources, especially the
Sahelian countries whereas, in parallel, most global environmental impacts, while striving to differentiate
increases in livestock production are the result of the real responsibilities associated with extensive
the development of intensive livestock production? livestock-farming activ ities from other causes of
 Is the development of pastoral livestock farming degradation.
in line with resource conservation objectives and
current environmental concerns of societies? The third part takes a critical look at the measures
 What political and technical decisions should be taken or to be taken to ensure the sustainability of
taken to ensure that pastoral farmers will be able to pastora lism and, for this, to strengthen pastora l
sustainably maintain the services that pastoralism v iabi l it y by encou r ag i ng t he pa r t ic ipat ion of
provides human societies and the environment? development policymakers, civil society, researchers
 How ca n pa stora l act iv it ies be or iented a nd and international supporters.
supported to enable pastoral farmers to improve
their living conditions? The authors of this Dossier hope that readers will be
able to develop their own opinions on the relevance for
The pastoral reality gradually reveals its complexity States to maintain, defend and support pastoralism.
when v iewed from a scientif ic sta ndpoint using The aim is also to clarify the terms used in discussions
specialized tools. To come up with potential avenues to on links between pastoralism and desertification,
be explored, it is necessary to take an in-depth look at which is still a controversial issue. They also want to
two areas, i.e. pastoral livestock-farming systems and shed light on possible ways for pastoralism to ensure
the degradation of pastoral areas. Understanding the efficient management of fodder resources that are
recent historical evolution and underlying dynamics, sparse, dispersed over large areas, often hard to reach
especially social links that support pastoralism, will and subject to climatic variations.
help clarify the options open for legal and political
intervention.


 Zebu cattle farming, Senegal.
A young shepherd and his zebu herd.
J.-J. Lemasson © IRD

Pastoralism and desertification—a controversial issue
Pastoralisme et désertification : un sujet controversé 11

Pastoralism
in sub-Saharan Africa

SPECIFIC FEATURES OF LIVESTOCK-FARMING  Adaptation to the env ironment: this is mainly
TECHNIQUES IN DRYLAND REGIONS adaptat ion to heat, a r id it y a nd long-d ista nce
movements (camels are highly adapted in this respect).
Very substantial mean interannual variability in plant It also includes the capacity to withstand periods of
biomass production may be noted in dryland regions, feed shortages and long periods between watering,
i.e. potentially over 60% in 1 year per decade, whereas even though this is only possible to the detriment of
it is 2- to 3-fold lower in subhumid and humid regions. their body mass (e.g. animals use part of the energy
In these dryland regions, the local rainfall spatial obtained by feeding just to move).
distribution is also highly varied. Livestock farmers,
because of the resulting uncertainty concerning the  H a r d i ne s s , i .e . t he c a p a c it y t o w it h s t a nd
availability of fodder resources, are obliged to adopt environmental variations and harsh conditions (e.g.
specific livestock-farming techniques to preserve poor feed quality or exposure to certain diseases or
their production capital, i.e. cattle and ecosystems. pests): this hardiness is the result of a long selection
Pastoralism hinges on t he ma rked capacit y of process in adaptation to such environments. However,
livestock farmers to make effective use of spontaneous t his goes hand-in-hand w it h t he low indiv idua l
f o dder r e s ou r c e s s c at t er e d i n he t er o genou s production performances (fecundity, milk production,
environments. carcass conformation), offset by the number of reared
animals.
The survival of livestock and the viability of pastoral
societies in t hese rest rict ive env ironments a re Versatility: most of the reared species provide many
dependent on technical management strategies, based services, such as generating high-protein foods (milk,
mainly on: meat), fertilizer and energy (carrying, transport, water
 the choice and combination of different herbivorous pumping, animal traction).
species
 the use of various fodder resources: herbaceous Combined herbivorous species
plants, supplemented by forage supplied by trees
and shrubs Livestock farmers rear one livestock species or combine
 the herd mobility, sometimes accompanied by the several. In this latter case, the farmer is able to take
pastoralist’s family. fuller and more balanced advantage of the available
environmental resources as each species taps a slightly
Adapted livestock species and breeds different feeding niche. The farmer diversifies the
products and services provided by the herd. This
Domest icated herbivorous l ivestock rea red on enhances the pastoralist’s capacity to adapt to a range
rangelands have acquired a genetic potential that is of different environmental and social conditions.
especially well adapted to their grazing environment
and to this type of livestock farming. This ensures the The herd composition may also change over time.
resilience and sustainability of pastoral livestock- Many livestock farmers whose herds were decimated
farming systems. Livestock farmers form their herds by the droughts have opted to rebuild them with small
on the basis of four major combined qualities (Lhoste, ruminants—this was a marked trend in the 1980s.
2007): With the return of more humid climatic conditions,
herd compositions gradually shifted in favour of cattle
Species diversity: depending on the environments (or camels in arid regions), which are more lucrative,
grazed, the resources and aims of the pastoralists, culturally entrenched and prestigious.
pastoral herds consist of cattle, small ruminants
(goats and sheep), camels and sometimes a few horses,
donkeys or hybrids.


 Artiﬁcial ponds that serve as watering points during
© A. Ickowicz large-scale transhumances in the Sahel, eastern Chad.

> FOCUS | Cattle feeding preferences

Cattle preferentially feed on grass, but supplement their Their ability to defoliate branches within their reach,
diet by browsing on tree leaves (around 10%). An adult right to the tips, as well as all young plants has given
250 kg cow requires a daily ration of 6–6.5 kg of dry them a plant destroyer reputation. This reputation
grass (24–26 kg of green grass). Tree leaves account is well founded but highly exaggerated in Sahelian
for almost half of a sheep’s diet, but the capacity of conditions. Camels are also preferential browsers but
these animals to very closely and intensively graze they can also sustain themselves by grazing on the
rangelands and then to regraze the same areas can tough grasses that grow in the Sahara.
degrade these lands. Goats preferentially browse on
leaves (around 80%) and supplement their diet by
grazing on grass.

Goats Sheep Cattle
100 100 100

10 10 10
Woody plants

Other grasses

Legumes
and other grasses

Legumes

Grasses
0 0 0
No Fe Ap Jn Au No Fe Ap Jn Au No Fe Ap Jn Au

 Comparison of rangeland feeding patterns of goats, sheep and cattle in the dry season and rainy season at Vindou Tiengoli (Senegal),
1982–83: from November to June (from the beginning to the end of the dry season), and August (middle of the rainy season).
(from Guerin et al., 1988)
x-axis: month
y-axis: proportion in % (log scale)


 Transhumance of a Fulani herd from Niger to southern Burkina Faso.  Herds returning via the Niger River Delta. Mali.

© B. Toutain O. Barrière © IRD

A quest for better fodder scarcity of resources by increasing its feeding activity
without an excessive energy expenditure. Moreover,
A pastoral landscape is a heterogenous environment— when the grass is high and the biomass substantial,
rangelands are complex patchworks of overlapping intake may be hampered by a low fodder quality and
and more or less interdependent ecosystems, while an extended grazing time (when grass hard to graze)
also being subjected to different seasonal climatic (Ickowicz & Mbaye, 2001). The pastoralist’s task is
conditions. Each unit in this patchwork (of highly thus to drive the herd to the best resources at that
va riable sur face a rea) never t heless has g ra zing time, which must be done every day and according
potentia l, prov iding fodder of different qua lities to the season. The main way a pastoralist, stockman
depending on the type of vegetation cover and the or shepherd can orient the diet of his herd is based
season. on herd rangeland management practices * (Diop et
al., 2010; Diop et al., 2011).
Each ruminant livestock species has a markedly
different behaviour with respect to grazings, especially Feeding livestock fodder that has been har vested
in the diet composition and depending on the season elsewhere and transported (depending on available
(see figure p.13). supplies: straw, hay) or supplement feeds (oilseed
cakes, cottonseeds, cereals, etc.) is seldom practiced
The daily quantity of feed ingested by a grazing animal in sub-Saharan Africa, except on a small scale and
depends on the height and mass of the available with specific objectives: lactation of females that
fodder. This intake level generally determines the produce milk for the family, work animals, weak
performance of ruminant livestock. According to animals, fattening, or in research stations or on a
several studies, within a minimum biomass level few ranches **, etc.
(around 500 kg/ha of dry matter [DM]) or a mean grass
height (around 5 cm), with variations depending on the The watering rate also differs according to the animal
type of vegetation, the animal can no longer offset a species, season and pastora lists’ practices—it is
usually daily in the dr y season and can be much
more spaced out during the rainy season because
of the high moisture content in the fodder. In the
dr y season, some cattle herders only water their
animals every 2 days (or even 3) when driving them
to distant rangelands. Camels can survive without
drinking for a week or even longer. The presence of
some relatively moist plants, such as desert gourds
Citrullus colocynthis, the crucifer Schouwia thebaica or
the Chenopodiaceae species Cornulaca monacantha,
reduces the water needs.

* On this topic in France, see the book edited by M. Meuret, 2010. Un savoir-
faire de bergers. Éditions Quae, France.

** In North Africa, cereal subsidies have enabled pastoralists to provide
complement feed for sheep grazing on steppelands. This has sharply boosted
the herd growth rate, which is disproportionate with what would be possible
 Goats browsing as high as possible on shrub
when feeding on available grass, and ultimately causing intense degradation
leaves (here an acacia). Burkina Faso, of the vegetation, thus worsening desertification. This practice is generally
© B. Toutain Tenkodogo region. too expensive in sub-Saharan Africa where herds mainly consist of cows.


Vital herd mobility
Domest icated r umina nts worldw ide a re able to depending on the season and the availability of water
digest quite rough vegetation because of the unique and fodder resources. Seasonal mobility, especially
physiology of their several stomachs. They can thus transhumance, is a specific feature of pastoralism in
graze various types of vegetation, even sparse or highly response to seasonal variations in resource availability
seasonal. When grass and shrubs are available, they and quality, which may differ depending on regions.
browse the best plants and plant parts, and they also Pastoralists sometimes walk long distances (even
need regular (basically daily) access to water. hu nd reds of k i lomet res) a longside t hei r herds
every year. This f lexible mobility strateg y enables
Spat iotempora l va r iabi lit y in natura l resources pastoralists to deal with the many events that may
can lead to one- to fourfold differences in fodder arise due to the hazards they encounter along the way.
availability at given sites and between years (e.g. from
500 kg DM/ha to 2 t DM/ha at the same Sahelian site This resource uncertainty and mobility goes hand-in-
depending on the year). Sometimes the herd just has to hand with collective access to rangelands. In harsh
travel 10–20 km to find a more (or less) better situation. env ironmenta l situations, resources can thus be
This variability is more marked in semiarid than in shared over vast areas when there are temporary local
subhumid areas. Cattle must therefore always be able shortages—pastoralists thus have reciprocal access.
to move to look for fodder where it is available. Note
that wild herbivores also practice different forms of For pastoralists living in sparsely populated regions,
transhumance seeking the most accessible grazing this mobility also facilitates exchanges with other
resources. social groups: selling products, purchasing cereals in
agricultural areas and other products for the family,
In a single day, the distances travelled around a exchanging services for fertilizer or transportation,
ca mp (sma l l-sca le mobi l it y) va r y substa nt ia l ly social encounters, etc.

> FOCUS | Different types
of pastoral mobility

There are different extents of mobility: Often within the same region there is a broad range of
different mobility systems that cooperate or compete
 In their daily movements, the herd disperses in the for resource access. The main features of these mobility
rangeland before grouping together for watering and systems are as follows:
spending the night in paddocks. The wandering range  the geographical distance of movements (from a
for cattle is around 10 km, or a maximum of 15 km few to several hundreds of kilometres, and even
(less for small ruminants). up to 1 000 km)
 the social scale of movements (shepherds alone
 Transhumance, or the seasonal movement of livestock, or families)
involves a change in grazing region. The herd may  fixed points and links to local communities and
travel up to 800 km from its home area during some land in the usual havens occupied during the hot
transhumances (in eastern Chad, central-eastern Niger). dry season
For farmers that practice nomadism, the entire lineage  seasonal grazing on fodder plants and salt cures
wanders with the herd. Nomadism prevails in dryland  water resources, that must be accessible to be able
regions, whereby families move around with their herds to use rangelands outside of the rainy season period
to take advantage of grazing opportunities and water when surface water is readily available. Well access
supplies, but also sometimes to participate in markets rights are negotiated between communities during
and social networks. the dry season
 markets, because they have a key role in generating
The extent of herd mobility is never steadfast—it is income via sales of animals and milk and in providing
flexible and fluctuates according to cyclical variables. access to staple cereals and other products for
From a mobility standpoint, like many other aspects, herding households
differences are never clearcut and there may be many  social ties, which facilitate movements and dealing
variations within the same group (tribe, lineage, family with the different problems encountered during
group). transhumance.


 Everyday life in the Inner Niger Delta region. Mali.  A herd of Fulani zebus grazing in a millet ﬁeld
after harvest, Burkina Faso, Dori region.

O. Barrière © IRD © B. Toutain

MANY SPECIFIC GOODS AND SERVICES
Pastoral systems enable pastoral societies to live breeds. Milk is also left for feeding the calves. In
according to their traditional culture and lifestyle while semiarid regions, only half of all females are lactating
also supplying commercial networks with products at once, which is related to the quite low average
of high market value, especially high-protein foods fertility rate (associated with the diet) of around 0.5
such as milk and red meat. Hence, they contribute to (one calf produced per 2 years). The age of the first
feeding humans and supplying the substantial Sahelian parturition is more often 4–5 years old than 3 years
export market to more populated coastal countries. old. Cows generally give birth to three to four calves
Animals are also a source of energy (animal draught, in their lifetime.
potential use of dry dung as fuel) and fertilizer for
crops (Lhoste, 1987).  The hides and sk ins are genera lly managed by
specific sectors.
A variety of products
These anima l products are supplemented by the
Meat and milk are the main products from pastoral provision of many services:
livestock farming; hides are also used:
 Field fertilizer: pastoralists make direct use of animal
 The meat production rate of a herd depends on manure or trade it with farmers, thus enhancing the
several parameters: the female fertility rate, juvenile fertility of crop plots around villages or camps. Dung
growth and mortality rate, and the adult mortality rate. is produced by animals grazing in crop fields. Manure
In extensive farming systems, male cattle are often produced in night paddocks can be transported and
marketed at the age of 5 to 7 years old. The number of spread in fields. This means that there is a net transfer
animals reared and the extent of area grazed offset the of fertility from rangelands to cropping areas.
low levels of productivity per head. The per-hectare
production rates of pastoral systems on collective  Animal energy supplied in different forms (mounted,
rangelands are higher than those of ranching systems portage, transport, drawing water, animal draught)
in USA or Australia (Breman & De Wit, 1983). Bille sometimes also represents a significant production for
(in Daget & Godron, 1995) compared the per-hectare pastoral societies. Some pastoralists are specialized in
cattle production rate of 10 kg liveweight per year providing transport services (natron, cereals, wood).
in the Borana region (East Africa) with that of 5 kg
liveweight reported on ranches in northern Australia,  A facilitator of social and economic relationships, e.g.
where production costs are eightfold higher. On cattle the use of available labour, mechanism for exchange
markets, there is higher export demand for animals and transfer of goods and services, a means for social
from pastoral areas than for heavier animals from support or maintaining social networks.
agropastoral areas. This is the situation in Chad for
animals exported to Nigeria.  A savings instrument, which is better than banking
products t hat a re not ver y ava i lable in reg ions
 Cow milk production is limited on average to around remote from cities—selling animals is a quick way to
1 l/day (0.5 –2 l) during the milk ing period. This generate cash to purchase food or consumer products,
low production is due to the hardiness of Sahelian monetized services).


Herd numerical productivity
The herd offtake rate, or the number of livestock used 2.0
by herders as offtake yearly, is a common indicator
used to determine the productivity per animal number
of a herd. However, the ‘productivity yield in animal
number’ of the herd, which is calculated by also 1.5

Milk quantity (l/cow/day)
accounting for herd number variations (positive or
negative numerical variations), is more representative
of the actual situation. In Sahelian pastoral systems,
the annual productivity yield in animal number of 1.0
livestock ranges from 10 to 15% on average, but can
var y markedly depending on t he env ironmenta l
conditions and the herder’s competence.
0.5

Annual and interannual production variability

In sub-Saharan Africa, the fodder quality and abundance 0.0
meet ruminant livestock feed needs during the rainy 0 25 50 75 100
Fodder moisture content (%)
season and at the onset but not at the end of the dry
season. This leads to substantial seasonal variations  Daily milk production of Sahelian cows according
to the fodder moisture content. From Diop et al., 2009.
in livestock productivity. Milk production, which is
The best grass for milk production is neither too moist (very young) nor too dry
highly correlated with feed intake, is a good indicator
(end of growth cycle and straw).
of the average fodder quality (see adjacent figure).

There is also interannual variability, which depends
on the annual rainfall pattern (see figure below).

16 0.45 B
400

A
12 0.33 C
Milk prod. 300
Milk quantity (x 1 000 l)

NDVI C
Live weight (kg)
NDVI

8 0.22 C
200

C
4 0.11 100

Age
0 0 0
91

96
2

93

95
4
91

96

6 months 1 year 18 months 2 years 30 months 3 years 42 months 4 years 54 months 5 year
9

.9
ne

c.
v.

t.

g.
c.

l.
pt

DS RS DS RS DS RS DS RS DS RS
No

Oc

De
Ju
Au
De
Ju

Se

 Seasonal and annual variations in mean milk production per cow in northern  General growth curve for young Sahelian male zebus reared
Senegal over 6 consecutive years relative to the normalized difference on rangelands. From Guerin, 1987.
vegetation index (NDVI). From Diop et al., 2009.
Curve A: traditional herding on rangelands
A high seasonal trend in Sahelian milk production may be noted, with a peak Curve B: with feed supplementation as of 30 months old
C: compensatory growth periods
centred at the onset of the dry season and enormous differences between
RS: rainy season • DS: dry season
years depending on the level of grass production (assessed via the NDVI
index*).

As the livestock liveweight also varies according to
the season, the weight gain is irregular throughout
an animal’s life (see above figure). However, after a
shortage period and by the compensatory growth
* NDVI, or the normalized difference vegetation index, is calculated using phenomenon, calves partially catch up in their weight
satellite remote sensing data and is proportional to the green vegetation
area. In dryland regions, it is related to the active plant biomass, which in gain once abundant and high nutritional quality fodder
turn is highly dependent on the extent of rainfall. is available.


SOCIOECONOMIC RELEVANCE OF PASTORALISM

A system adapted to environments
with sparse or variable natural production

Pastoralism still naturally prevails in areas where
various favorable features make it a more advantageous
option than other production systems: (i) mixed
uncultivated vegetation, that is relatively unproductive,
but with substantial fodder plants, (ii) access to watering
places, (iii) adapted livestock (species, breeds), (iv)
shepherds (with their roles in managing their herds
and practical aspects of mobile rangeland grazing).
It is better adapted than any other production system
(except forestry) to contrasted climatic conditions
and lands that are unsuitable for crop farming due
to infertile soils or rugged landscape. In most areas O. Barrière © IRD

worldw ide, pastoralism therefore coincides w ith  Farmers and livestock farming. Mali.
steppeland, mountain or barren limestone plateau Through a manure supply agreement between pastoralists and crop farmers around the village of
vegetation, and even savannas and dry forests. Wuro Neema, ﬁelds are fertilized and herds graze the harvest residue. This mutual aid situation
sometimes degenerates into a conﬂict if the herd arrives before the end of the crop harvest.

In dry tropical Africa, especially in West and Central Secondly, the indirect economic values should also
Africa, the recent increase in constraints to pastoralism be taken into account, some of which do not always
has therefore not kept it from developing and expanding, correspond to monetary exchanges:
as a function of the current rapid population growth  b y pr o duc t s : h a nd m ade pr o duc t s, g at her e d


rate, even in pastoral areas. s u b s t a nc e s ( g u m a r a bic , hone y, me d ic i n a l
substances, etc.)
An essential economic role social capital represented by technical know-how,
cultural wealth and social ties
The economic value of pastoralism should be roughly  various ecosystem services such as biodiversity,
assessed: water transfers and carbon storage (Hartfield &
Davies, 2006), which is now sometimes assessed
First, the direct economic value accounts for the and pastoralists are even paid for this latter service
measurable and quantifiable products such as on-the- in some parts of the world, but not yet in Sahelian
hoof animals, meat, milk, skins and hides. This should, countries.
where possible, be supplemented by the economic cost
of animal draught transport and employment in the Sa hel ia n pastora l ist s — despite t hei r i mpor ta nt
livestock-farming sector. economic role in making effective use of areas where
conditions are harsh—continue to cope with the
Current statistical data give valuable clues despite quite obstacles and especially high transaction costs: long
varied degrees of accuracy. For Sahelian countries distances to travel to market their products, many
a lone, t he livestock-fa r ming sector cont r ibutes livestock markets are still insufficient in some regions,
significantly to the national wealth (see table below), the weight of negotiations on resource access rights,
even though a slow decrease over the years may be asymmetry in transaction information, the minimal
noted. Pastoralism itself represents a major share of presence, or even absence, of financia l ser v ices
the overall livestock-farming sector (up to half). for pastoralists (e.g. microcredit and insurance).
Investments on livestock-farming infrastructures
(markets, veterinary stations, herd watering facilities,
roads) and the modernization of practices (lorr y
livestock transportation, use of telephone and internet)
reduce transaction costs.

 Contribution of livestock farming to the agricultural gross product in Sahelian countries.

Country Livestock-farming contribution (%) Country Livestock-farming contribution (%)
Burkina Faso 30 Mauritania 83
Cameroon 18 Niger 36
Guinea 15 Senegal 23
Mali 32 Chad 32
Source: FAOSTAT, 2009, according to the world market value of the products.


 A Fulani camp.
The young men are away
tending their herds.
Northern Senegal.

J.-J. Lemasson © IRD
© B. Toutain

 A M’Bororo Fulani man.
Northern Cameroon.

> FOCUS | A few biases and misconceptions
concerning pastoralists
Glorifying prejudices

The common bucolic idealized Western vision of  No future: pastoralism is considered as an archaic
pastoralists’ lifestyle reflects a yearning for exotism, activity derived from backward traditions, and destined
space and freedom, which is far removed from the to disappear with modernization and streamlined
reality of the pressures and difficulties that pastoralists livestock farming. Pastoralists are tolerated because
deal with in their daily lives. Some peoples thus have they are residual.
idealized reputations, for instance Touaregs (or so-called  Undisciplined: for administrators, pastoralists are
‘blue men’), with their proud mastery of the desert, or considered to be hard to control, ‘vagabonds for the
the Wodaabe Fulanis, symbolizing freedom, a simple pleasure’, ‘perpetually wandering’ and elusive. They
lifestyle and wandering. These glorified views reflect dodge national integration, taxpaying and conscription.
a lack of understanding of the reality and constraints  Uncontrollable competition: for settled populations,
that pastoralists face. transhumant farmers are considered to not respect
local rules and regulations, or are viewed as invaders
Demeaning prejudices and competitors.

Some of these prejudices, which have been around What is the best attitude?
since colonial times, are still vivid:
 Inef ficiency and uselessness: pastoralists are These long-standing, unfounded and humiliating
considered just as gatherers, inefficient producers prejudices have led many pastoralists to have a poor
or, even worse, destroyers of nature. Pastoral livestock opinion of themselves and become marginalized. The
farming is considered to be ‘contemplative’, with specificity of the lifestyle of these peoples should be
pastoralists focused mainly on accumulating cattle recognized, as well as their numerical, economic and
for prestige, and relatively unresponsive to progress. cultural importance.


Essential social functions
Pastoral livestock farming systems and transhumance—  Socia l t ies a nd excha nges bet ween herd i ng
the key component—are based on solid rationales community members: this involves donations in kind
inherent to pastora l communities. For pastora l (animals and products) as a token of allegiance or for
societies, pastoralism and mobility have the following services rendered, marriage dowries, inheritances,
main functions: loans (especially milking cows) to needy families, and
allocations to enable youths and shepherds to get set up
 Basic support for herding families through the and ensure their empowerment. The livestock owner’s
production of food (milk, meat), energy (transportation, prestige is based on the animal number and quality.
animal draught), exchangeable or marketable products
(on-the-hoof animals, milk, processed products). This Social relationships with other, mainly agropastoral,
function is based on the herd’s health and breeding communities: these mainly concern access to resources
situation. All technical elements that foster livestock such as water, rangelands, crop residue, and donations
productivity (veterinarian progress, networks of wells and exchanges of food products and cereals, livestock,
and boreholes, anti-bushfire initiatives, livestock labour, etc.
breeding, etc.) contribute to improving this function.
 Ma i ntena nce a nd t ra n sfer of tech n ic a l a nd
 Livestock capital accumulation: a minimal number cultural knowledge: this varied know-how concerns
of animals is necessary for a family to be able to live domesticated animals, livestock-farming techniques,
and ensure transmission of this asset (around 20 TLUs mobility, other communities, properties and cycles
[tropical livestock units] per family according to Faye, of wild plants, wild animals, environments, climate,
2001, or a minimum of 3 TLUs per person, which is nonbiological resources (water, salt cures, etc.), as well
considered to be the poverty line in the Sahel). A as folklore, history, tales, poetry, etc. The pastoralist’s
supplementary herd helps ensure sustainability when ancestors are remembered and respected due to the
dealing with the different hazards and uncertainties presence in the herd of cows that had been offered
associated with pastoral farming systems, thus reducing by them.
the vulnerability of pastoralists and enabling household
expenditures and investments.

> FOCUS | Women—pillars
of pastoral families
Women are the cornerstones of herding families. They
generally take care of most household tasks such as
cooking, getting water and fuel supplies, handicraft
making, putting up and taking down tents, and packing
baggage. They are also involved in herding activities
such as milking, tending to weak animals and small
ruminants, making butter and cheese, movements and
transhumance. They often leave the household to barter
© B. Toutain

or sell their products in exchange for cereals or other
commodities. Their children are therefore generally
less subject to nutritional deficiencies than those of
farmers who do not own dairy animals. Indeed, priority  Fulani women from Ferlo, Northern Senegal.
is given to feeding children and pregnant and nursing
women in herding families during shortage periods.
Although these women have little education, they are
When the men are absent, which frequently occurs still acknowledged as being better managers than
during crisis periods, the women manage the family the men, especially in associative activities—they
and the herd. During normal periods, they have a say often serve as treasurers in mixed-gender groups.
in household decisions, depending on their experience They have a foothold in the present while transmitting
and personality, but also because they own some of education and culture to the younger generations,
the animals and the family tent. Women are at the despite the many changes that are taking place in
heart of matrimonial alliances and social ties. pastoral societies. It is hoped that women will keep this
role and position in pastoral communities because, as
the Tamashek saying goes, “women, like rangelands,
cannot be fenced in.”


Pastoralism in dryland areas. A case study in sub-Saharan Africa

Pastoralism in dryland areas. A case study in sub-Saharan Africa

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