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Ribozyme 核酶
(Catalytic RNA molecule)




        制作:cz12062008
        制作:cz12062008
1.What is a Ribozyme?
     1.What

Ribozymes are true enzymes.
                   enzymes.
A ribozyme is an RNA molecule
(分子) that is capable
             capable(能力)
of catalyzing (催化)a chemical
                  a
reaction.
NOT PROTEIN
      PROTEIN(蛋白)
First Ribozyme                discovered

上世纪80    80
         80年代,美国科罗拉多大学博尔德分校的
Thomas Cech(The intron in the pre-rRNA of Tetrahemena is
self-spliced 和美国耶鲁大学的Sidnery Altan(The M1
self-spliced)                      Sidnery Altan The
RNA in ribonuclease P is catalytic 各自独立地发现RNA
                         catalytic)              RNA
                                                 RNA具有
生物催化功能.从而改变了生物催比剂的传统概念。
               .



  1989 Nobel Prize
    In Chemistry

                         Sid Altman       Tom Cech
2.
 2.核酶的分类
             I型内含子
剪接型核酶
通过既剪又接       II型内含子
的方式除去内
含子(Intron)
   Intron)
             锤头核酶
剪切型核酶        发夹核酶            自体催化
自身催化的        丁型肝炎病毒(HDV)核酶
反应是只切
不接。
             RNaseP          异体催化
异体催化能
剪切所tRNA
    tRNA
前体的5‘端
    5
How many ribozyme ?
  the hammerhead ribozyme (plant virus)
    锤头状核酶(来源:植物病毒)
- the hairpin ribozyme (plan virus)
    发夹状核酶
- hepatitis delta ribozyme (human virus)
   丁型肝炎核酶(来源:人类病毒)
- neurospora VS ribozyme (mitochondrial RNA)
   孢VS
     VS
     VS核酶(来源:线粒体RNA       RNA
                          RNA)
- group I and group II intron ribozyme (rRNA and mt RNA)
    内含子I和II
          I II
             II核酶(来源:rRNA MT RNA
                           rRNA
                           rRNA和MT RNA)
- RNAse P (tRNA maturation)
   核糖核酸酶P(来源:tRNA
             P         tRNA
                       tRNA的成熟)
- Ribosome (translation)
   核糖体(翻译)
- Spliceosome (splicing)
    剪接 (拼接)
天然核酶及核糖酶
Ribozym             Sequenced               Size (nt)                  Activity                     Source
 (核酶)                (测序)                   (大小)                       (功能)                         (来源)
Group I intron             >1’500
                           >1’                 210             self-splicing via 3’-OH
                                                                                 3’               eukayotic pre-mRNA,
                                                               of G; transesterification          organelles, few bacteria

Group II intron             >700               500             self-splicing via 3’-OH
                                                                                 3’               organelles, few prokaryotes
                                                               of A; transesterification
Hammerhead                     11               40             self-cleavage via                  plant viruses
Hepatitis delta virus          2                90            transesterification                  hepatitis B virus (RNAgen.)
Hairpin                         1               70            (2’,3’-cyclic phosphate)
                                                              (2’ ,3’                              satellite RNA of plant virus

RNAse P                       >500             300            pre-tRNA processing                  prokaryotes and organelles
                                                              via hydrolysis (3 ’-OH)
                                                                             (3’                   of eukaryotes

Spliceosome                                                    pre-mRNA splicing via               eukaryotic pre-mRNAs
(U2 + U6 snRNAs)            70; 50        180; 100             ransesterification (3 ’OH)
                                                                                  (3’

Ribosome                     >900             2’600
                                              2’              peptidyl transfer (amide)           prokaryotes and eukaryotes
(23S rRNA)



   Naturally occurring ribozymes and ribonucleoprotein enzymes (2002)

 peptidyl transfer (amide)
                   (amide)转移肽(酰胺) self-splicing
                                          self-splicing自我剪接 self-cleavage
                                                              self-cleavage自我裂解   2’,3’-cyclic phosphate 2' 3' -
                                                                                    ,3’                  2',3' -环磷酸
 transesterification酯交换 prokaryotes and eukaryotes 原核生物和真核生物
 transesterification
pre-tRNA processing via hydrolysis (3 ’-OH) 处理经水解的前氨酰- tRNA 3' - OH
                                   (3’                      - tRNA(3' OH)
3.结构(Structure )
     3.
                     consider...
As with proteins, we consider...

   Primary:    GGCCGAACUGGUA
    一级
              Secondary
                二级:


                           Tertiary
                            三级:
3.1 Primary Structure
               Structure一级结构
           ribonucleotides核苷酸 (base
Limited to ribonucleotides     base碱基 + ribose
                                        ribose核糖 + phosphate
                                                   phosphate磷酸):


     Common Bases:        N                   O               N             O
     常见碱基             N
                              N
                                      N
                                                  N               N             N

                      N   N           N       N       N       N       O     N       O

                          A                       G                   C                 U


     Uncommon Bases:                      O                       O
     罕见碱基                             N       N
                                                          N
                                                                      N

                                  O                       N       N

                              Pseudouridine               Inosine
                                 假尿苷                       肌苷             etc...
3.2 Secondary Structure
              Structure(二级结构)
 Watson-Crick Base Pairing                 Helix Formation
   沃森-克里克碱基配对
       -                                       螺旋形成

 B-DNA     A-DNA        RNA
                               RNA usually assumes
                               A-form helices…
                                      helices…
                               DNA
                               DNA常常假设A-   A-
                                           A-型螺旋

                               Small pore along helical axis
                               沿螺旋轴形成个小孔


                              “Rungs” stack obliquely to axis
                               Rungs”
                               阶梯式的斜上升的中心轴
I
     -5                        -5
                  CU G
3′            B          YB
                                           50
5′            V          GV
                    GA A
                        10

                          20               C
                                            A
                            G                  U
                                                 U
                               A                A
                                               H 40
                                   A       A
                                       A
                                       C



                              30


              2-2
                     发卡型核酶二级结构
Secondary Structure
                 Structure(二级结构)


    Conserved base-pairing interactions result in...
    保守的碱基配对相互作用的导致:

•   Three “stem” regions
           stem”
         三个结构域

•   Uridine-containing turn
      旋转而封闭的尿苷

• An “augmenting helix”
                  helix”
 joining stems II and III
结构域II 与 III
   II   III连接形成的增强螺旋结构
Ribozyme      vs.      tRNAPhe
   核酶                  苯丙氨酸tRNA
                           tRNA




           folding
           folding折叠
The hammerhead ribozyme (     )
                         (锤头状核酶)

- discovered in small RNA satellites of small viruses (1986)
  是小病毒携带的小的RNA         RNA
- replication by rolling circle mechanism
   通过不断循环机制进行复制折叠




                  Secondary structure
RNAse P(核糖核酸酶P) is a ribozyme
             P

 RNAse P cleaves the 5’ end of pre-
                       5’
 tRNAs
(核糖核酸酶P切割5'  P   5'     tRNA
                 5'前体tRNAtRNA的末段)
 It is composed of 12 kDa P protein and
 about 400 nt long RNA
(它是由12 kDa
         12 kDa蛋白质和长约400     400
                             400元的RNARNA
                                     RNA组
 成)
 The catalytic activity lies entirely within
 RNA part
(催化活性中心位于RNA      RNA
                  RNA上)
RNAse P(核糖核酸酶P) is a ribozyme
             P

 Enzyme is efficient without P protein but
 in high salt conditions
(在高的盐条件,酶在没有P蛋白时还是有活性     P
 的)
 P protein or high salt is thought to
 screen the repulsive electrostatic
 interactions between RNAse P RNA and
 substrate pre-tRNA
(P 蛋白质或高盐被认为是核糖核酸酶P RNA            P
 与前体tRNAtRNA
        tRNA表面之间静电排斥反应的屏障。
P(核糖核酸酶P)
RNAse P      P
3.3 tertiary structure(三级结构)




锤头状核酶   发卡状核酶   丁型肝炎病毒   内含子I型核酶
                            I
Hammerhead ribozyme
   (锤头状核酶)
The hammerhead ribozyme (锤头状核酶)
                               )

- tertiary structure




        Scott et al and Klug, Science 1996
The hairpin ribozyme (     )
                     (发夹状核酶)




      From Lilley TIBS (2003)
The hepatitis delta ribozyme (丁型肝炎核酶)
                                    )




              From Lilley TIBS (2003)
Group I &II intron ribozyme (rRNA and mt RNA)
               内含子I型和II
                  I  II
                     II型核酶




                                 Doudna and Cech
                                 Nature, 2002
Group I intron ribozyme (rRNA and mt RNA)

       内含子I型核酶(rRNA and mt RNA)




        Golden et al, and cech Science (1998)
4.
4.核酶的功能 (The Activity of Ribozym )
         The

1. 核苷酸转移作用。   
2. 水解反应,即磷酸二酯酶作用。   
3. 磷酸转移反应,类似磷酸转移酶作
   用。   
4. 脱磷酸作用,即酸性磷酸酶作用。   
5. RNA      RNA
   RNA内切反应,即RNA
            RNA限制性内切酶
   作用。
5.mechanism of catalysis
5.mechanism
     催化反应机理
How to catalyse the reaction ?
     催化反应如何进行?




     From Lilley TIBS (2003)
Catalytic efficiency, condition
             催化效率和条件
- ribozyme follows a Michaelis-Menten kinetics
                                      kinetics(米氏动力学)
                     k1               k2
 E(酶) + S
        S(底物)              ES
                           ES(过渡态)         E + P
                     k-1
               k-1+ k2
   Km(米氏常数)=         = 10-5-10-7 M   kcat
                                      cat(催化常数)= 0.5-2 min
                                                           -1

                k1


  kcat/ Km= 103-106 M-1.min-1  Good catalytic efficiency!!
                                     良好的催化效率
   - all ribozyme need cations for activity (Mg 2+ ,Mn2+)
             所有活化的核酶的需要阳离子(Mg2+ ,Mn2+)
mechanism of catalysis
            催化机理




    Intact
Phosphodiester
完整的磷酸二酯           Mg2+Coordinated
                    Transition
                 Mg2 +
                     +协调的过渡态
                                       Cleaved
                                    Phosphodiester
                                    结合后的磷酸二酯
Catalytic Mechanism(催化机理)
New crystal structure shows five Mg 2+ sites:
新发现的结晶结构是五个 Mg2+      Mg2+
                        2+的结合域
核酶的剪接机制
                 �
          鸟苷的3’-OH攻击
          内含子的5’剪接
          点,并与Intron的
          5’-端磷酸基形成
          共价键连接,同时5’
          外显子脱落下来,
          但3’外显子此时仍
          与Intron相连。
          5’-端外显子的
          3’-OH进攻内含子
          的3’剪接点并使
          413nt的内含子脱
          落,同时5’外显子
          与3’外显子连接成
          成熟rRNA
3D structure of ribozyme: mechanism of catalysis
             hairpin ribozyme
                                           Hepatitis delta ribozyme
              (发夹状核酶)
                                              (丁型肝炎核酶)




Ruppert et al, Nature 2001, Science 2002    Ferre d’Amare, Nature 1998
                                                  d’
Structure of the hairpin ribozyme
                (发夹状核酶的结构)
                         )
       hairpin ribozyme




 Ruppert et al, Nature 2001, Science 2002
hairpin ribozyme(发夹状核酶))
           Ground state
                  state(基态)   Transition state
                                         state(过渡态)




Ruppert et al, Nature 2001     Ruppert et al, Science 2002
hairpin ribozyme
  (发夹状核酶)
  Transition state(过渡态)
             state(   )




Ruppert et al, Science 2002
5.Ribozyme
5.Ribozyme
  Ribozyme应用
 Ribozyme
 Ribozyme的发现使我们认识到酶不一定都是蛋白质,
 这些Ri-bozyme
     Ri-bozyme    RNA
     Ri-bozyme主要用在RNA
                  RNA分子的切割与降解上。
 因为真核生物的突变体很难获得,假如用特制的
 Ribozyme
 Ribozyme破坏切割特定的RNARNA
                   RNA分子,使这种RNA RNA
                                RNA不
 能表达出相应的蛋白质,我们再进一步观察其表型变
 化,从而了解这个基因的功能。
 另外在医学方面,可以用特别的RibozymeRibozyme
                       Ribozyme切割一些对
 人体有害的RNA  RNA
           RNA,达到解除有害基因功能的目的,这
 也是基因治疗的又一条路子。
 在动植物育种方面,可以将具有破坏病毒RNA        RNA
                              RNA的
 Ribozyme
 Ribozyme基因导入动植物细胞,提高动植物抗病毒能
 力。
举例:Engineered allosteric ribozymes as biosensors
   Engineered
      (具有生物传感器功能的变构核酶)

     a. ATP-sensing aptamer + self-cleaving
        ribozyme.
        ribozyme.
       ATP传感适体+自我切割核酶。
       ATP        +
     b. This variant favors ADP binding 100-fold
        overATP.
        overATP.
        这种变异使对ATP   ATP
                    ATP的亲和力是ADP 100
                                  ADP 100倍。
                                  ADP的100
     c. Can be used as an in vitro sensor for
        enzyme activity (or for enzyme inhibition).
                                         inhibition).
        用作体外传感器的酶激动剂(或酶的抑制剂)。
蓝箭头显示裂解位
    点
Most common output is Green Fluorescent
            Protein (GFP)
   最常见的输出是绿色荧光蛋白(GFP          GFP
                              GFP)
Ribozyme  核酶 (英文及中文) 最终成稿

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Ribozyme 核酶 (英文及中文) 最终成稿

  • 1. Ribozyme 核酶 (Catalytic RNA molecule) 制作:cz12062008 制作:cz12062008
  • 2.
  • 3. 1.What is a Ribozyme? 1.What Ribozymes are true enzymes. enzymes. A ribozyme is an RNA molecule (分子) that is capable capable(能力) of catalyzing (催化)a chemical a reaction. NOT PROTEIN PROTEIN(蛋白)
  • 4. First Ribozyme discovered 上世纪80 80 80年代,美国科罗拉多大学博尔德分校的 Thomas Cech(The intron in the pre-rRNA of Tetrahemena is self-spliced 和美国耶鲁大学的Sidnery Altan(The M1 self-spliced) Sidnery Altan The RNA in ribonuclease P is catalytic 各自独立地发现RNA catalytic) RNA RNA具有 生物催化功能.从而改变了生物催比剂的传统概念。 . 1989 Nobel Prize In Chemistry Sid Altman Tom Cech
  • 5. 2. 2.核酶的分类 I型内含子 剪接型核酶 通过既剪又接 II型内含子 的方式除去内 含子(Intron) Intron) 锤头核酶 剪切型核酶 发夹核酶 自体催化 自身催化的 丁型肝炎病毒(HDV)核酶 反应是只切 不接。 RNaseP 异体催化 异体催化能 剪切所tRNA tRNA 前体的5‘端 5
  • 6. How many ribozyme ? the hammerhead ribozyme (plant virus) 锤头状核酶(来源:植物病毒) - the hairpin ribozyme (plan virus) 发夹状核酶 - hepatitis delta ribozyme (human virus) 丁型肝炎核酶(来源:人类病毒) - neurospora VS ribozyme (mitochondrial RNA) 孢VS VS VS核酶(来源:线粒体RNA RNA RNA) - group I and group II intron ribozyme (rRNA and mt RNA) 内含子I和II I II II核酶(来源:rRNA MT RNA rRNA rRNA和MT RNA) - RNAse P (tRNA maturation) 核糖核酸酶P(来源:tRNA P tRNA tRNA的成熟) - Ribosome (translation) 核糖体(翻译) - Spliceosome (splicing) 剪接 (拼接)
  • 7. 天然核酶及核糖酶 Ribozym Sequenced Size (nt) Activity Source (核酶) (测序) (大小) (功能) (来源) Group I intron >1’500 >1’ 210 self-splicing via 3’-OH 3’ eukayotic pre-mRNA, of G; transesterification organelles, few bacteria Group II intron >700 500 self-splicing via 3’-OH 3’ organelles, few prokaryotes of A; transesterification Hammerhead 11 40 self-cleavage via plant viruses Hepatitis delta virus 2 90 transesterification hepatitis B virus (RNAgen.) Hairpin 1 70 (2’,3’-cyclic phosphate) (2’ ,3’ satellite RNA of plant virus RNAse P >500 300 pre-tRNA processing prokaryotes and organelles via hydrolysis (3 ’-OH) (3’ of eukaryotes Spliceosome pre-mRNA splicing via eukaryotic pre-mRNAs (U2 + U6 snRNAs) 70; 50 180; 100 ransesterification (3 ’OH) (3’ Ribosome >900 2’600 2’ peptidyl transfer (amide) prokaryotes and eukaryotes (23S rRNA) Naturally occurring ribozymes and ribonucleoprotein enzymes (2002) peptidyl transfer (amide) (amide)转移肽(酰胺) self-splicing self-splicing自我剪接 self-cleavage self-cleavage自我裂解 2’,3’-cyclic phosphate 2' 3' - ,3’ 2',3' -环磷酸 transesterification酯交换 prokaryotes and eukaryotes 原核生物和真核生物 transesterification pre-tRNA processing via hydrolysis (3 ’-OH) 处理经水解的前氨酰- tRNA 3' - OH (3’ - tRNA(3' OH)
  • 8. 3.结构(Structure ) 3. consider... As with proteins, we consider... Primary: GGCCGAACUGGUA 一级 Secondary 二级: Tertiary 三级:
  • 9. 3.1 Primary Structure Structure一级结构 ribonucleotides核苷酸 (base Limited to ribonucleotides base碱基 + ribose ribose核糖 + phosphate phosphate磷酸): Common Bases: N O N O 常见碱基 N N N N N N N N N N N N O N O A G C U Uncommon Bases: O O 罕见碱基 N N N N O N N Pseudouridine Inosine 假尿苷 肌苷 etc...
  • 10. 3.2 Secondary Structure Structure(二级结构) Watson-Crick Base Pairing Helix Formation 沃森-克里克碱基配对 - 螺旋形成 B-DNA A-DNA RNA RNA usually assumes A-form helices… helices… DNA DNA常常假设A- A- A-型螺旋 Small pore along helical axis 沿螺旋轴形成个小孔 “Rungs” stack obliquely to axis Rungs” 阶梯式的斜上升的中心轴
  • 11. I -5 -5 CU G 3′ B YB 50 5′ V GV GA A 10 20 C A G U U A A H 40 A A A C 30 2-2 发卡型核酶二级结构
  • 12.
  • 13. Secondary Structure Structure(二级结构) Conserved base-pairing interactions result in... 保守的碱基配对相互作用的导致: • Three “stem” regions stem” 三个结构域 • Uridine-containing turn 旋转而封闭的尿苷 • An “augmenting helix” helix” joining stems II and III 结构域II 与 III II III连接形成的增强螺旋结构
  • 14. Ribozyme vs. tRNAPhe 核酶 苯丙氨酸tRNA tRNA folding folding折叠
  • 15. The hammerhead ribozyme ( ) (锤头状核酶) - discovered in small RNA satellites of small viruses (1986) 是小病毒携带的小的RNA RNA - replication by rolling circle mechanism 通过不断循环机制进行复制折叠 Secondary structure
  • 16. RNAse P(核糖核酸酶P) is a ribozyme P RNAse P cleaves the 5’ end of pre- 5’ tRNAs (核糖核酸酶P切割5' P 5' tRNA 5'前体tRNAtRNA的末段) It is composed of 12 kDa P protein and about 400 nt long RNA (它是由12 kDa 12 kDa蛋白质和长约400 400 400元的RNARNA RNA组 成) The catalytic activity lies entirely within RNA part (催化活性中心位于RNA RNA RNA上)
  • 17. RNAse P(核糖核酸酶P) is a ribozyme P Enzyme is efficient without P protein but in high salt conditions (在高的盐条件,酶在没有P蛋白时还是有活性 P 的) P protein or high salt is thought to screen the repulsive electrostatic interactions between RNAse P RNA and substrate pre-tRNA (P 蛋白质或高盐被认为是核糖核酸酶P RNA P 与前体tRNAtRNA tRNA表面之间静电排斥反应的屏障。
  • 19. 3.3 tertiary structure(三级结构) 锤头状核酶 发卡状核酶 丁型肝炎病毒 内含子I型核酶 I
  • 20. Hammerhead ribozyme (锤头状核酶)
  • 21. The hammerhead ribozyme (锤头状核酶) ) - tertiary structure Scott et al and Klug, Science 1996
  • 22. The hairpin ribozyme ( ) (发夹状核酶) From Lilley TIBS (2003)
  • 23. The hepatitis delta ribozyme (丁型肝炎核酶) ) From Lilley TIBS (2003)
  • 24. Group I &II intron ribozyme (rRNA and mt RNA) 内含子I型和II I II II型核酶 Doudna and Cech Nature, 2002
  • 25. Group I intron ribozyme (rRNA and mt RNA) 内含子I型核酶(rRNA and mt RNA) Golden et al, and cech Science (1998)
  • 26. 4. 4.核酶的功能 (The Activity of Ribozym ) The 1. 核苷酸转移作用。    2. 水解反应,即磷酸二酯酶作用。    3. 磷酸转移反应,类似磷酸转移酶作 用。    4. 脱磷酸作用,即酸性磷酸酶作用。    5. RNA RNA RNA内切反应,即RNA RNA限制性内切酶 作用。
  • 28. How to catalyse the reaction ? 催化反应如何进行? From Lilley TIBS (2003)
  • 29. Catalytic efficiency, condition 催化效率和条件 - ribozyme follows a Michaelis-Menten kinetics kinetics(米氏动力学) k1 k2 E(酶) + S S(底物) ES ES(过渡态) E + P k-1 k-1+ k2 Km(米氏常数)= = 10-5-10-7 M kcat cat(催化常数)= 0.5-2 min -1 k1 kcat/ Km= 103-106 M-1.min-1 Good catalytic efficiency!! 良好的催化效率 - all ribozyme need cations for activity (Mg 2+ ,Mn2+) 所有活化的核酶的需要阳离子(Mg2+ ,Mn2+)
  • 30. mechanism of catalysis 催化机理 Intact Phosphodiester 完整的磷酸二酯 Mg2+Coordinated Transition Mg2 + +协调的过渡态 Cleaved Phosphodiester 结合后的磷酸二酯
  • 31. Catalytic Mechanism(催化机理) New crystal structure shows five Mg 2+ sites: 新发现的结晶结构是五个 Mg2+ Mg2+ 2+的结合域
  • 32. 核酶的剪接机制 � 鸟苷的3’-OH攻击 内含子的5’剪接 点,并与Intron的 5’-端磷酸基形成 共价键连接,同时5’ 外显子脱落下来, 但3’外显子此时仍 与Intron相连。 5’-端外显子的 3’-OH进攻内含子 的3’剪接点并使 413nt的内含子脱 落,同时5’外显子 与3’外显子连接成 成熟rRNA
  • 33. 3D structure of ribozyme: mechanism of catalysis hairpin ribozyme Hepatitis delta ribozyme (发夹状核酶) (丁型肝炎核酶) Ruppert et al, Nature 2001, Science 2002 Ferre d’Amare, Nature 1998 d’
  • 34. Structure of the hairpin ribozyme (发夹状核酶的结构) ) hairpin ribozyme Ruppert et al, Nature 2001, Science 2002
  • 35. hairpin ribozyme(发夹状核酶)) Ground state state(基态) Transition state state(过渡态) Ruppert et al, Nature 2001 Ruppert et al, Science 2002
  • 36. hairpin ribozyme (发夹状核酶) Transition state(过渡态) state( ) Ruppert et al, Science 2002
  • 37. 5.Ribozyme 5.Ribozyme Ribozyme应用 Ribozyme Ribozyme的发现使我们认识到酶不一定都是蛋白质, 这些Ri-bozyme Ri-bozyme RNA Ri-bozyme主要用在RNA RNA分子的切割与降解上。 因为真核生物的突变体很难获得,假如用特制的 Ribozyme Ribozyme破坏切割特定的RNARNA RNA分子,使这种RNA RNA RNA不 能表达出相应的蛋白质,我们再进一步观察其表型变 化,从而了解这个基因的功能。 另外在医学方面,可以用特别的RibozymeRibozyme Ribozyme切割一些对 人体有害的RNA RNA RNA,达到解除有害基因功能的目的,这 也是基因治疗的又一条路子。 在动植物育种方面,可以将具有破坏病毒RNA RNA RNA的 Ribozyme Ribozyme基因导入动植物细胞,提高动植物抗病毒能 力。
  • 38. 举例:Engineered allosteric ribozymes as biosensors Engineered (具有生物传感器功能的变构核酶) a. ATP-sensing aptamer + self-cleaving ribozyme. ribozyme. ATP传感适体+自我切割核酶。 ATP + b. This variant favors ADP binding 100-fold overATP. overATP. 这种变异使对ATP ATP ATP的亲和力是ADP 100 ADP 100倍。 ADP的100 c. Can be used as an in vitro sensor for enzyme activity (or for enzyme inhibition). inhibition). 用作体外传感器的酶激动剂(或酶的抑制剂)。
  • 40. Most common output is Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) 最常见的输出是绿色荧光蛋白(GFP GFP GFP)