12. Cognitive appraisal: Intrapsychic process that translates
objective events into stressful experiences.
Subjective factors play larger role in stress experience than
objective events.
Any objective event can at once be perceived positively by one
person & negatively by another "One person's meat is
another person's poison".
13.
14. Arthur Kornhauser
American Industrial psychologist
1896-1990
Presidents of the Industrial and Business Section of the
American Association for Applied Psychology (AAAP)
{1941-1943}
“Psychological tests in business” (1924)
“When Labor Votes: a Study of Auto Workers" (1956)
"Mental Health of the Industrial Worker" (1965).
15. occupational stress
NIOSH (1996) identified the "organization of work"
which includes work-related psychosocial stressors,
as one of 21 national OSH research priorities.
16. Top 10 Most Stressful Jobs for 2013:
1) Enlisted military personnel
2) Police Officer
3) Miner
4) Taxi Driver
5) Firefighter
6) Commercial Pilot
7) Newspaper Reporter
8) Photojournalist
9) Loss prevention officer
10) Mental Health Case Manager
11) Medical professional
20) Teacher
17. The 10 Least Stressful Jobs for 2013:
1. University professors
2. Tailors
3. Medical Records Technician
4. Jeweler
5. Medical lab technician
6. Audiologist
7. Dietitian
8. Hairstylist
9. Librarian
10. Drill Press Operator
18. Model of Job Stress and Health
Over the past 25 years a paradigm of stress was developed
by researchers at NIOSH to guide efforts at examining the
relationship between working conditions and health
consequences.
24. Moderating Factors
A number of personal & situational characteristics can Alter
or Modify the way individual workers exposed to a work
environment Perceive or React to it.
25. • Type A behavior pattern (TABP): intense striving for achievement,
competitiveness, time urgency, excessive drive, & over commitment to
vocation or profession.
• Hardy personality: optimistic appraisals of events
• Internal locus of control: a general belief that events in life are controlled
by their actions.
• Stage of career development: work experience (job tenure)
Individual
Factors
•Interpersonal, marital, financial, & child-rearing stressors.
Workers clearly do not leave their family & personal problems behind
when they go to work, nor do they forget job problems on returning
home.
Nonworkor
Extra
Occupational
Factors
• Social Support: work & nonwork sources
• Coping (educational level & income): Maladaptive coping (such as
working harder, but making more mistakes). But resistance of may
be due to the impersonal nature of work & lack of worker control
over this class of stressors (Personality Hardiness).
• Lifestyle Factors: physical fitness & exercise, smoking cessation,
sound nutrition habits, and stress management (Health promotion).
BufferFactors
(↓oreliminatetheeffects
ofjobstressors)
26.
27. Hardiness
(3Cs)
Commitment
(Sense of inner purpose)
Challenge
(Viewing stressful situations as opportunities for growth &
development of individual abilities)
Internal locus of Control
(Having power over owns life &
attitude)
31. method of coping
Behavioral methods
Control Escape Social Solitary
Cognitive methods
Control the
stressor
Escape from the
stressor
32.
33. A prolonged response to chronic emotional
& interpersonal stressors on the job.
Human service industry.
34. Emotional exhaustion
Lack of personal
accomplishment
Depersonalization
“Feelings of cynicism &
detachment from the job &
sense of ineffectiveness”
3 key dimensions of Multidimensional model
of burnout phenomenon.
35. Stress Burnout
Over-engagement Dis-engagement
Emotions are overreactive Emotions are blunted
Produces urgency &
hyperactivity
Produces helplessness &
hopelessness
Loss of energy Loss of motivation, ideals
& hope
Leads to anxiety disorders Leads to depression
“mood disorders”
Primary damage is
physical
Primary damage is
emotional
May kill you prematurely May make life seem not
worth living
36. Prevention & Intervention
Tertiary
heal traumatized
Secondary
(stress management)
alter the ways to perceive
or respond to job stressors
Primary
↓ or eliminate risk
factors or job stressors
• Medical Care
• Psychological
Counseling &
Therapy
• Individual-oriented
strategies.
• Organizationally
oriented strategies.
• Psychosocial
interventions
• Socio-technical
interventions
37.
38. Focus primarily on human processes & psychosocial aspects
of the work setting.
Aim: ↓ stress by changing employees' perceptions of work
environment (modifications of objective working conditions).
Psychosocial Interventions
39. Participatory Action Research (PAR)
Employees are involved, jointly with outside experts, in an
empowering process of defining problems (identifying
stressors), developing intervention strategies,
introducing changes that benefit employees, and
measuring outcomes.
Methodology in which researchers & workers collaborate
in a process of data-guided problem solving for the dual
purposes of improving the organization's ability to
provide workers with desired outcomes & contributing
to the general operational knowledge.
40. Socio-technical Interventions
Focus primarily on changes to objective working
conditions & are considered to have implications for work-
related stress.
Aimed at eliminating job stressors by making change to
objective working conditions or environment.
Involved the modification of workload, work schedules,
& work processes.
41.
42. Help workers to modify their appraisals of stressful
situations or to deal with the symptoms of stress or
both.
Typically, Prescriptive & person-oriented
Relaxation-based techniques:
1. Biofeedback,
2. Progressive muscle relaxation,
3. Meditation,
4. Self-hypnosis
5. Cognitive-behavioral skills training.
70. Individual-oriented strategies:
Often easier to implement,
Can be evaluated in the short term
Not require disruptions in production schedules or
organizational structure,
Fit nicely with the frequently held management view that
stress is an individual rather than an organizational
problem
Compatible with the expanding interest of employers in
health promotion & disease prevention programs that focus
exclusively on individual lifestyle & behavior changes to
improve health.
71. Organizational-oriented strategies:
Require an assessment of the work conditions that
generate stress & knowledge of the dynamics of
change processes in organizations.
These change strategies can be expensive & disruptive
and may make them less appealing to management.
72. Cognitive-behavioral skills training: effective in ↓
psychological symptoms of stress
Muscle relaxation training: main effects on physiologic
indicators such as muscle activity.
Combinations of techniques, especially muscle
relaxation plus cognitive-behavioral skills training, are the
most common type of stress management intervention.
These interventions focused on changing the individual
worker, not the job-related sources of stress. None of them
effective in producing effects on job/organization-relevant
outcomes, as productivity, absenteeism, or job satisfaction.
73.
74. Therapeutic treatment of physical, psychological or
behavioral consequences of exposures to job stressors.
Medical Care
Psychological Counseling & Therapy
Treat work-related mental health problems.
Behavior & cognitive therapy; Supportive
counseling, and Insight-oriented psychotherapy.
Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs): provide a
variety of mental health-related services. Employees
can refer themselves to the EAP or be referred by
management.
75. The goals of an EAP are to restore employees
to full productivity
Identifying employees with drug abuse, emotional, or
behavioral problems resulting in deviant work
performance;
Motivating such individuals to seek help
Supplying short-term professional counseling
assistance.
Referral & Directing employees toward best available
assistance
Providing continuing support & guidance throughout
problem-solving period.
76. Cost-effectiveness of EAP programs:
Reduced health claims, financial savings, lower
absenteeism rates & overall return on investment.
Confidentiality, may limit the use of onsite mental
health resources.
Editor's Notes
His mention of "nervous stimuli" among the stressor agents capable of eliciting the GAS had an energizing effect on investigators working in the field of psychosomatic medicine.
To summarise the diagram: demands seen as challenges tend to be associated with greater use of task-focused coping (i.e. getting to grips with the demand and solving any problems) and social support. These in turn are associated with higher levels of positive emotion (enjoyment, satisfaction, engagement with the task), better job satisfaction and lower intentions to leave.
Demands seen as threats tend to be associated with more use of avoidance (procrastination, delay, distraction etc). This is associated with worse emotional and work-related outcomes: higher stress, less job satisfaction, increased intentions to leave, etc.
The exception is when someone seeks – or is given – social support (practical help or emotional support) to deal with a threat. Then outcomes tend to be positive, the person is able to address the problem and feels better about the outcomes. Social support is one of the resources that can help deal with work demands.
NIOSH is the principal federal agency in the US engaged in research aimed at the recognition and control of job-related hazards.
The stated goal of this agency is to ensure safe and healthful working conditions for America's working men and women.
Related to issues of workload and pace, there has been concern expressed about the absolute number of hours required of some employees, particularly trainees and interns who may be required to work excessively long hours during the course of their training. These issues may be particularly salient given that the average work year for working couples has increased by nearly 700 hours in the past two decades, and up to 30% of the workforce reports being exhausted by the end of the workday.