In his initials works, Freud, makes a series of discoveries and fundamental contributions to the neurobiology and psychology, to whom he gives little or no diffusion. Several decades later those same findings were reported by other researchers, that now, deserved in most cases, a Nobel Prize in Medicine. I give below a detail of such findings, as the result of a personal and original investigation of Freud’s life and work; at the same time I compare with my theory of psychic structure and function due to more than 10 years of research that culminated in my PhD thesis, Semiotics of real systems, and a treatise on the psychic theory of human natural language.

1. 1
The Freud’s Project
Summary
In his initials works, Freud, makes a series of discoveries and fundamental
contributions to the neurobiology and psychology, to whom he gives little or no
diffusion. Several decades later those same findings were reported by other
researchers, that now, deserved in most cases, a Nobel Prize in Medicine.
I give below a detail of such findings, as the result of a personal and original
investigation of Freud’s life and work; at the same time I compare with my theory
of psychic structure and function due to more than 10 years of research that
culminated in my PhD thesis, Semiotics of real systems, and a treatise on the
psychic theory of human natural language.
Key words: Psychology’s Project, Neurobiology, Logic.
We begin this approach better knowledge of the psyche, the instrument that
enables the supreme manifestations of human subjectivity, from a minimum and
necessary detail of the apparatus that Freud imagined when he wrote the Project
for a psychology for Neurologists in 1895.
But do not we retrospectively, that is, do not approach it from the interpretation of
dreams or from later and purely psychoanalytic work, but we will do so from the
same draft found among the correspondence sent by Freud to his friend Fliess.
(AE Volume I, p. 323)
Direct access to the project is founded on trying to show, first, that this work did
not mean a failure in his attempt to explain psychological processes by neuronal
activity, and therefore he would not publish, as some researchers suggest. In fact,
the theoretical model built here, appears throughout his work in its fundamental
aspects, although reworked from the psychoanalytical point of view.
Second, though he used two basic concepts, such as Neuron and Quantity, He
managed to sketch, through a series of mechanisms derived from the of physical
prevailing in his time, and the circulation of quantities of energy, increase and
reduction in different systems that supposedly constituted our neural apparatus,
'the forces' that would generate psychic processes, both normal and pathological.
In the description of this mechanism, strictly metaphorical nature, there are
budding, very important concepts that then find the source of great finds further
developed, such as artificial neural networks, although not they were inspired in
the incommensurate Freudian intuition.
On the other hand, the project represents the first coherent attempt to show the
existence of an inner world and its importance as a means of defining subjectivity.
Freud sought from this work, scientific basis for the study of the psyche, as well
let see with his own words: "The purpose of this project is to provide a psychology
of Natural Science". (Op. Cit., p. 339)
Natural science that prevailed at the end of the nineteenth century was physics,
therefore, there is an undeniable conceptual influence derived and specifically,
by then nascent electronic theory. In addition, in 1882 he published his research

2. 2
on histology of the nervous system; in 1884 he read the conference: "The
structure of the elements of the nervous system"1 (Jones, 1981, p 70), which
holds, based on research conducted by him at the Institute of Physiology Dr.
Brücke, the thesis of morphological and physiological unit of nerve cells, using a
staining method-of his invention-, this way it was anticipated to the theory of
neurons of Waldeyer (1891) and to the theory of dynamic polarization of Ramon
y Cajal (in 1892 and Nobel Prize in 1906), which establishes dendrites as receiver
pole of the neuron, and its axon as the place where the stimulus is transmitted to
other neurons; whereupon, as we see, already had all the necessary material to
start your elaboration.
We will make a description of the first part of the approach of Freud, and we will
in contrast to artificial neural networks, so that, on the one hand, be clear what is
the caliber of some of his predictions, but on the other hand, for make it easier to
understand its functioning. (Figure 1)
Fig. 1 Freudian neurons in the project
References: Q = outside quantity - Qἠ = psychic quantity
We must clarify to avoid confusion, the description by Freud is similar in part to
that is made from the current artificial intelligence, and is based on the conception
of the neuron as a functional unit governed by excitations and inhibitions, theory,
from the beginning (Waldeyer, Ramón y Cajal) was held as a sort of
neuroscientific dogma, until 1988, when Rodolfo Llinás showed that the neuronal
1
In the text of the conference, which is a summary of all his works on the subject, goes beyond the field
of histology, as shown in the following paragraph: "If we assume that nerve fibrils have the meaning of
isolated roads driving, we would have to say that the tracks, which are separated in the nerve flow into
the nerve cell: the nerve cell becomes the 'beginning' of these nerve fibers anatomically attached to them
".

3. 3
functionality does not depend on their connections, but its intrinsic
electrophysiological properties (Llinás's Law), is means that there may be two
morphologically identical neurons that release in its operation the same
neurotransmitters, but whose electrophysiological properties are remarkably
different.
However, neither the proposal of Freud, or computer simulations, dwindle in
importance, as they allow us to approach, in a very simple way, a cursory
understanding of how it is possible that a brain operation (biological) is the source
of an inner psychic activity, which, incidentally, help rejected as inaccurate, all
those appreciations that ravaging Freudian theory with the harsh sentence: 'too
biological'.
In the artificial neuron, as in his Freudian homonym, there are three factors that
can be modified to alter their behavior and way of integration with other neurons,
neighbors or not. In the artificial neuron, as in his Freudian homonym, there are
three factors that can be modified to alter their behavior and way of integration
with other neurons, neighbors or not. These factors are: a) The magnitude of the
stimulus it receives (Q load), b) interconnections with other neurons (connectivity
pattern), and c) Strength (or excitability) of these interconnections (Qἠ). But Freud
was a little further, perhaps intuiting - or rather anticipating - somehow the Llinás's
Law, describing three types of neuronas2 (φ, ψ, ω), and three types of functions:
W = perception, V = representation, and M = motor image.
Neuron as processing unit
Looking at Figure 1 we can see that artificial neurons follow a pattern of
connectivity divided into three levels: a) The superficial level, where are neurons
that receive stimuli from the outside, b) The hidden or internal level, where they
are those neurons who have no contact with the outside world, but where is
carried out the processing of entries; and c) The output level, where are the
neurons that are responsible for providing the response of the system.
As we see, this neural network not only receives a series of inputs, but emits an
output given by three functions: 1) Propagation or excitation function, which
places the inlet in relation to the weight of their interconnection. If the weight is
positive, the connection is called excitatory, if negative, is called inhibitory; 2)
Activation function amending the previous one. May even not exist; if this is the
case, the output is the same function of propagation; and 3) Output or transfer
function, which is applied to the resulting value of the activation function. This is
used to define the output and, as a result, may be characterized, at least three
types of neurons: a. All or nothing neurons, that handle discrete amounts,
included in a certain range, b. Indentity neurons, where its output is equivalent to
the non-application of the output function, and c. Neurons that handle continuous
analog quantities. Finally, all of this neurons are governed by a rule defined
learning.
Neurons proposed by Freud, as independent processors with low capacity of
individual process, greatly enhance the ability to be connected profusely, show a
2
(...) The neuron system consists of different neurons with identical architecture ... (op. Cit., P. 342).

4. 4
distribution and a specific pattern of connectivity, and meet all the functional
aspects listed in the previous paragraph. Let's look at this in some detail:
On the theory of neurons:
[...] The neurons's system comprises different units with identical
architecture, that are in contact by means of a strange mass, which
end in one another as parts of foreign tissue; and they are prefigured
certain conduction orientations, because it receive by the cell
extensions and output it by the cylinder-axis. To this is added, besides,
the abundant branching with a variety of caliber." (Op. Cit., P. 342).
Where is hereby stated the connectivity patterns, in addition to the neural
bipolarity, proposal by Ramón y Cajal:
In fact, by the anatomy, we have news of a system of neurons (the
substance spinal gray) that is unique in forming a weft with the outside
world, and one superimposed (the brain gray matter), which has no
peripheral connection whatsoever, but it is responsible for the
development of the system of neurons and the psychic functions." (Op.
cit. p. 347)
Where he detail precisely the neuronal distribution in levels:
If one combines the neurons Qἠ theory, you obtain the representation
of a vested neuron [activation state] that is filled with some Qἠ, but
other times it is empty [transfer function or output]. The principle of
inertia finds expression in the course of a stream [propagation
function], since from the conductions or cell extensions [dendrites] is
directed to cilinder-axis [axon]. (Ibid)
The above describes what Freud identified as primary neuronal function and
reproduces exactly the theory of dynamic polarity of Ramón y Cajal.
As for the secondary function, which requires storage of Qἠ, is made
possible by assuming resistors that are opposed to the discharge, and
the architecture of the neuron suggests the possibility of placing all the
resistance in contacts [synapses3], so they receive the value of a
barriers. (Ibid.)
If the theory of barriers-contact adopts this form, you can give the
following expression: there are two kinds of neurons. First, those that
let pass Qἠ as if they haven't none barrier-contact [φ neurons in Figure
1], [...], and secondly, those whose barrier- contact is asserted, so that,
that Qἠ can pass only with difficulty, or only partially through them.
[Neurons ψ in Figure 1] (Ibid., P. 343)
Here is clearly marked with the "possibility of forming memory" as it says the
original text, agreeing on a whole as proposed in artificial neural networks, theory
accepts that the 'memorized information', as is supposed to happen in the brain,
is more related to the synaptic values [handled by the contact barrier-Freudian]
that with the neurons themselves. In other words, that knowledge is at synapses
3
The term synapse was introduced by Foster and Sherrington in 1897, two years after the project was
drafted.

5. 5
and is represented by the 'weights' [the Qἠ of Freud] of the connections between
neurons. Thus, the learning process involves a succession of changes operated
over these connections , that is, it is learned by modifying the 'weights' of the
network [Freud mnemic footprint]. Freud says in this regard:
"Memory consists of the existing facilitations4 between ψ neurons."
(Op. Cit., P. 344)
On the memory subject is instructive a scheme that Freud sends to Fliess in one
of his letters (52), (Figure 2) where he speaks on the assumption that the psychic
apparatus has been generated by successive stratification, since, time to time -
Freud continues - the preexisting material of mnemic footprints undergoes a
rearrangement according nexuses, a transcript (Umschrift).
Fig. 2 Memory according Freud5
References: P = neurons where perceptions are generated (without any footprint) – Ps = (Signs
of perception) first transcription of perceptions associated by simultaneity, not aware –
Ic = (Unconsciousness) second transcript that corresponding, perhaps, to footprints of memories
of concepts – Prc = (Preconsciousness) third transcription, linked to representations-word –
Coc = neuron-consciousness
What is essentially new in my theory, then, is the thesis that memory
is not pre-exist a simple way, but multiple, is registered in several
varieties of signs. Some time ago (aphasia6) I have argued for such a
rearrangement pathways coming from the periphery (of the body to the
cerebral cortex). I do not know how many of these transcripts exist. At
least three, probably more. I have illustrated this with the following
scheme [Figure 2], in which it is supposed that the various transcripts
are separated, also according to their neuronal carriers (not
necessarily a topically).
In Figure 2, Freud makes clear his successful conception on some aspects, for
example: consciousness and memory are mutually exclusive; and suggest that
both neurons-consciousness as neuronas-percepción would have no memory.
This scheme is the precursor that will appear in "The Interpretation of Dreams"
when speaking of the psychic apparatus refers for the first time explicitly, to the
mnemic footprints.
It is important to point out another foresight of Freud on the mechanism
underlying learning. It has to do strictly with the concept of facilitation, as an
element essential promoter of the changes that occur in neuronal synapses.
4
What constitutes memory, according to Freud, are in fact, "the distinctions within the facilitations" (op.
Cit., P.345), which would be the equivalent of weight changes of a connection.
5
Excerpted of op. Cit., p. 275.
6
He refers to his book on Aphasias (1891).

6. 6
Donald Hebb published in 1949, "The organization of behavior" which became
one of the most influential works in psychology and neuroscience. In this book
appears the idea of a very particular synapse, which is now known as Hebb's
synapses or Hebbian. This concept, which has survived intact to this day and has
given rise from the artificial neural networks to modern theories of brain function,
is an explanation of the operation of the synapse, based on the experimental work
of Sherrington and Pavlov on reflexes and inhibitions.
The neurophysiological Hebb's postulate (ibid., p. 62) assumes that the
persistence or repetition of a reverberant activity (or 'footprint') tends to induce
lasting cellular changes that point to cell stability. This assumption states the
following: when the axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly
and persistently takes part in the excitement, some growth process or metabolic
change takes place in one or both cells, so that the efficiency of A, as one of the
cells which make to B shoot, increases. This basic rule is based in learning
algorithm using by artificial neural networks, while explaining exactly how
conditioned reflexes work, and suggests a possible mechanism of memory. To
develop a remembrance, the neural network 'Retains' the association of a
particular group of neurons, by strengthening their links, formerly weak (Freudian
facilitation). Enhanced relationships allow neurons to fire together the next time.
When a few are triggered, they induce their neighbors inactive, to shoot, to
connecting through relationships (roads or footprints) already transited. It is a
similar phenomenon to what happens with a row of dominoes falling crawling to
each other, to reach a destination that league them. By reviving an old pattern,
is made a recapitulation (Freud's retranscription) of the original situation.
Finally, we discuss which, in my opinion, is the most significant advance made
by Freud respect to neuronal functioning. The importance attached to the answer
to how and where the qualities are generated?, is doubly justified. On the one
hand, because it portends absolutely Llinás’s law, not only in their anatomical
aspects, but also in those that indicate the functional parameters to be taken into
account when characterizing a particular neuronal type, and the other hand, it
suggests where is the key to human subjectivity, that is, the psychic management
of the qualitative.
What I have described up to this point is what Freud considered unconscious, but
he warns us that the content of consciousness must 'thread' with quantitative
processes ψ. He states that consciousness gives us the 'qualities'; those feelings
that are 'something else' within a wide range, and whose characterization
depends on links with the outside world. After discarding, more or less
successfully, the φ neurones and ψ neurons as the place of residence of the
qualitative, proposes to ω neurons (perceptive of quality neurons of Figure 1),
which would be excited from the perception, but not by reproduction [memory],
thus giving different levels of qualities, to which he calls conscious sensations.
The ω neurons are characterized as driving too low load [excitement or 'weight'],
which is contradicted by the fact that no 'memory', and yet, it is postulated that
reach full facilitation [Supposedly maximum memory]. Reviewing the fundamental
assumption about the course of excitation [propagation function], which until now
was considered as Qἠ transfer from one neuron to another through contact
barriers [synapses], the genius emerges. Let us accept that Freud shows us in
his own words:

7. 7
But also, [the Qἠ] it must possess a character: a temporary nature; in
fact, the mechanics of physicists, has attributed this temporary feature,
also to the other mass movements of the outside world. For the sake
of brevity, I call this 'period', and I will assume then that all resistance
of barriers-contact only applies to the transfer of Q, but that the period
of neuronal movement spreads everywhere without inhibition, so to
speak, as a process of induction.
In paragraph followed, he continues:
[...] The neurons ω are unable to receive Qἠ, in exchange for which
they appropriate of the period of excitation; and this, their state of
affectation for the period, given a minimum fill with Qἠ, is the
foundation of consciousness. (AE Volume I, p. 354)
Finally, it arises what is the cause of the differences of the period, concluding that
'distinct qualities' of the organs of the senses are the cause of these differences,
and this explains it by saying that sensory organs are not only screens that protect
the body against excessive amounts of Q, as all terminal organ, but are also filters
that only let through a stimulus of certain processes, with defined period.
Llinás proposes that cognition is an intrinsic functional state of the brain (Llinás
et al., 1998, p. 1841), and that consciousness is an internal functional status,
dream-like type, which is modulated rather than generated by the senses ( Llinás
& Pare, 1991); but also that its substrate is the thalamocortical resonance, ie,
spontaneous oscillatory activity in a particular band (with a specific period, as
predicted by Freud). Based on their research to determine the shortest time
interval for sensory discrimination (Freudian period), it concludes that
consciousness is a non-continuous event, determined by the synchronous
activity in the thalamus-cortical system. (Llinas, Op. Cit., P. 1845). Freud, in Notes
on 'Magic slate' (1925), suggests a mechanism that we must emphasize, given
the similarity between this mechanism and the proposed by Llinás (1993), which
was amended and extended by Salatino (2012) to explain the discontinuous
operation of consciousness, but above all, a possible mechanism representation
of time.
Freud says:
In the magic slate, the written it disappears whenever the intimate
contact between the paper which receives the stimulus and the wax
tablet that preserves printing is interrupted. [...] I have assumed,
investiture innervations are sent and round pick in newspapers fast
punches from the inside to the P-Cc system, which is completely
permeable. While the system remains invested thus, it receives
perceptions accompanied by awareness and transmits the excitation
to the unconscious mnemic systems; as soon as the endowment is
withdrawn, consciousness is extinguished, and the system operation
is suspended. It would be as if the unconscious, through the P-Cc
system extended to meet the outside world, an antennas that rapidly
removed, after taking 'samples' of their excitations. Therefore, I make
that interruptions in the magic board ensue from outside occur by the
discontinuity of the stream of innervation; and the inexcitability of
perception system, of periodic occurrence, replaces in my hypothesis

8. 8
to the effective cancellation of the contact. I guess also that in this
discontinuous work of system P-Cc the genesis of the representation
of time is based. (Volume XIX, AE, p. 246)
In Salatino, referred to the internal or psychological time, we can find the
following:
An alternating behavior between states of consciousness and
unconsciousness, which become evident between a 'now' and another
is thus determined. This dynamic involves a kind of exploratory
interruption state of consciousness, which aims to perceive and
develop what is perceived, tasks that happen during the 'wedge'7, and
to which the internal time is spent. These interruptions are not
perceived by consciousness, given its short duration. [...]We are
highlighting that the operation of the perceptual system is deployed in
a state of unconsciousness and is a discrete (binary) and sequential
process, and not continuous, as is supposed by psychophysics
(James, 1890) with periodic behavior with active and inactive phases
and flexible because it adapts, changing its frequency to the external
and internal constraints. (Salatino, 2012, p. 420)
Freud tells us that, in addition to sensible qualities, as contents of consciousness
are feelings of pleasure and displeasure. Displeasure would be the sensation ω
against an increase of Qἠ in ψ; while pleasure, it would be the sensation of
discharge.
Operation of the apparatus
The operation of the psychic apparatus formed by neurons φ, ψ and ω is
summarized by Freud as follows:
1) The stimuli affect terminals of φ system, operating with a certain threshold
[magnitude of the excitation = amount], and at the same time as a filter
[specific receptors = quality], that lets pass stimuli of relevant nature.
2) The amount of φ stimulation causes the discharge of the nervous system
as a proportional motor excitement.
3) To the ψ neurons it is transferred part of the load Qἠ, the flow is modified
by the interpolation of several barriers-contact, that as we saw, officiate
memory. The operation of these barriers-contact is such, that offering, in
the first instance, a resistance to the passage of the stimulus, which be
exchanged for facilitation, but instead of signify resistance cancellation,
only the downgrade to a necessary minimum.
7
Temporal Wedge is the temporary gap helps explain why the same real fact it looks different from of the
objective that of the subjective. Is the 'external time unaware' that elapses between a 'now' and the other
in the world of objectivity where, simultaneity is relative, that is, where there is no 'eternal now', but a
succession of them. This temporary plurality is not perceived because we remain plunged in
unconsciousness while the 'wedge' runs, lasting 12.5 msec. Then the sensation is permanent
consciousness and continuous fluence of external time. During the temporal wedge in the internal time,
important subjective phenomena occur, such as, updating the transient memory and predictability
showing our brain, all while on the surface apparently nothing changes. In addition, and very importantly,
during this period of psychological time it is where takes place the elaboration of thoughts.. (Author's
Note)

9. 9
In the words of Freud:
While Q runs, resistance is canceled; then resets, but to different
heights according to the Q that it has passed in each case, so that the
next time may already spend a smaller Q, etc. Even with the most
comprehensive facilitation, remains then, some resistance, the same
for all barriers-contact, which therefore also demand a Q growth, to a
certain threshold so that these Q can pass. This resistance would be
a constant ". (AE Volume I, p. 361)
4) The urgency of discharge of ψ operates in two ways, first, as an 'internal
change' in the apparent identified by expression of emotions, or bawl, etc.,
which is done as a result of a simple transfer between neurons; and
secondly, the cancellation of the stimulus by 'detachment' [effort
channeled into the motor activity], that is, the occurrence of a change in
the outside world (food supply, for example), which as 'specific action' that
in first instance - given the human inability - comes from 'foreign aid' that
'warns' state of necessity. The whole is an experience of satisfaction,
which is validated by the events that occur in the system ψ, namely: a)
there is a lasting discharge that gives relief to the effort involved
displeasure in ω, b) is generated in the cortex (mantle) the excitation of
one or more neurons as a result of the perception of an object, and c) to
other places of the cortex comes news of the discharge of the reflex
movement, according to the specific action, and result in an 'image -
movement' in ψ. The latter is exactly equivalent to that defined by Llinás
as a Fixed Action Pattern (PAF)8
5) The establishment of a 'reproductive recall' [operational memory or
'storage' of PAF], governed by the fundamental law of association by
simultaneity, which forms the basis of all connections between neurons ψ.
Freud tells us:
We find that the consciousness, that is to say, the quantitative
investiture of a neuron ψ, passes from one of them, α, to a second, β,
if α and β were once invested simultaneously from ϕ (or from
elsewhere). Then, by a simultaneous investiture α-β , was facilitated a
barrier-contact. Hence it follows, in the terms of our theory, that a Qἠ
more easily transfers from a neuron to an invested neuron, than to a
non-invested neuron. The investiture of the second neuron then
produces the same effect as the more intense endowment of the first.
In this case, once again, investiture [state or excitation level] shows to
be, for the duration of Qἠ, equivalent to facilitation [learning]. (AE,
Volume I, p. 363)
This is almost a literal copy of Hebb's neurophysiological postulate, seen
earlier, but elaborated 54 years later.
8
Llinás (2003, p. 155) defines PAF (fixed action pattern) as an automatic modulus of discrete motor
function that operates as a somewhat more elaborate reflex and whose origin is neural networks that
specify stereotyped movements that are often Rhythmic and relatively fixed; Fixity that occurs not only
on an individual level, but on an entire species. In this work, this concept is extended to the concept of
habit, or that 'motor routine' that once learned becomes a kind of operational memory. This mechanism
was first described by Nicolaas Tinbergen, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1973.

10. 10
6) It characterizes the experience of pain, through what produces in ψ, that
is, a great increase of the load [level of excitation] that translates into ω as
displeasure, a Predisposition to the discharge, and a facilitation between
this and an image-memory of the object producing pain. In addition, pain,
has a certain quality. If by new perceptions the mnemic image of the hostile
object was put into effect, it would produce not pain, but something like
that which he called affection. (AE, Volume I, p. 365)
Freud tells us that just as motor neurons tend to discharge Qἠ into muscles,
there must be 'secretory' neurons that produce an endogenous Qἠ. These
'key neurons', as he calls them, through a series of chemical products
(Volume I AE, p.366), and the achievement of a privileged facilitation with the
image-remembrance the hostile object that caused pain, produce the
'detachment' of the displeasure in the affection. Here, not only gives an idea
of the existence and importance of the interneurons or association neurons,
but also anticipated the existence of chemical synapses (the most abundant),
which were only discovered by Otto Loewi until 1921 (Nobel Prize 1936) And
most transcendent, a precise prediction of the existence of the operative
neurotransmitters in these chemical synapses, something that was
discovered by Bernard Katz, between 1935 and 1946 (Nobel prize 1970).
7) From the experiences derived from the affections and states of desire
(those characterized as a revitalization of the remembrance images left by
an experience of satisfaction) From the latter, originates the attraction of
desire, and from the former, the primary defense as a consequence of the
repulsion of the experience of pain. This primary defense or repression
arises from the appearance of another object instead of the hostile one
that indicates the termination of the experience of pain, thus attempting
the system ψ, 'biologically instructed', to reproduce the state that defined
the cessation of pain.
8) Defines the Ego as the organization that has been formed in ψ, as a
consequence of concurring on this system, both of the attraction of desire
and the inclination to repress, that is, those states accompanied by
satisfaction or pain. It establishes it in a group of neurons that are
permanently invested [loaded] and fulfill, among others, the function of
reservoir of the secondary function. The desire of this Ego is to get rid of
burdens through satisfaction, but for this to be possible, it must influence
the experiences of pain and affections, inhibiting them. To explain
inhibition, he tells us:
If a contiguous neuron is invested simultaneously, this produces the
same effect of a temporary facilitation of the contact barriers between
them and modifies the course that would otherwise have been directed
by a facilitated contact barrier. A collateral investiture is, then, an
inhibition for the course of Qἠ. (Op. Cit., p. 368)
Again Freud goes further in describing this inhibitory mechanism of 'collateral
investiture', something Sherrington officially discovered in 1897, and for
which, along with other important contributions, he received the Nobel Prize
for Medicine in 1932.

11. 11
9) Clearly differentiates a primary process from a secondary process in ψ.
This allows to distinguish between the real presence of an object and its
representation-fantasy, that is, between perception and representation.
From this arises one of the fundamental concepts of Freudian theory, as
the sign of objective reality, which is attributed to the discharge of ω (of an
excitation-quality from an external perception) on ψ. (EA, Volume I, p. 371)
The activity of recognition of a perceptive entrance implies, above all, the
participation of thalamic nuclei, which include the most modern or specific
nuclei and the oldest or nonspecific nuclei. Both nuclei emit connective fibers
to the pyramidal dendrite of the cortex, the specific ones are connected with
this unique dendrite at the level of the 4th cortical layer and the nonspecific at
the level of the 1st layer of the cerebral cortex. When both thalamic
connections virtually coincide in time (when they are separated by 5 msec or
less), there is a concordance of the 'content' or perception that arrived by the
specific nucleus, with the 'context or continent', which gives it the nonspecific
nucleus , by contextualizing the content in chronological or external time.
Attained the synchronic approximation, there is a discharge of action
potentials in the axon of the pyramidal neuron, which certifies such synchrony.
This interesting phenomenon, described by Llinás (1994) as the neuronal
signal of the identification between the perceived and its context in time, is the
same mechanism that Freud (1895) intuited, when he called a 'sign of reality'
to the neuronal discharge that was produced when it was possible to decree
equality between the maximum useful approximation between the perceived
and the continent (memory, desire, need, etc.). It is a discharge produced by
an approximate temporal identity that is considered as absolute, that is, as
synchronous despite being successive. Both approaches have in common a
neuronal discharge that informs an apparent synchrony result of a succession
led to its minimal expression, that is, to the apparent equality between the
objective and the subjective, or between the desire and the perceived,
indispensable organic-functional base for thought, because it makes it
possible to distinguish the internal (contextural) time of external time (or of the
content). The apparent coincidence of both times in the 'now' gives sense to
reality. (Salatino, 2013, p.64)
It is the inhibition propitiated by the Ego that provides a criterion to distinguish
between perception and memory, something that ψ learns to value
biologically. Thus they are constituted The primary psychic processes which
are the Investiture-desire until the hallucination, the total development of
displeasure, which implies the total expense of defense, and the secondary
psychic processes that are made possible by the investiture of the Ego as an
attenuation of the former, and which arise from a correct appreciation of the
signs of reality, given the inhibition operated by the Ego.
10)Make a distinction between discernment and thinking, as between
remembering and judging; all attempts to explain the psychic functioning,
based on biology, to an unimaginable level in 1895, and even with a series
of specifications that was never matched, even today. We will only analyze
in some detail the relation established by Freud between thinking and
reality.

12. 12
Freud says:
The goal and termination of all thought processes is, then, to produce
a state of identity, the transfer of an investiture from outside to a
neuron invested from the Ego. The discerning or judicative thinking
seeks an identity with a bodily endowment; The reproductive thinking,
with an own psychic endowment (an own experience). Judicative
thinking provides the previous work to the reproductive thinking, since
it offers a facilitations, already ready for a later associative migration.
If, after the conclusion of the act of thinking, the sign of reality is added
to the perception, the judgment of reality, the belief, has been
obtained, thus achieving the goal of all work. (AE, Volume I, p.378)
This wonderful passage gives absolute sustenance to one of the fundamental
principles of Transcursive Logic9: "The psychic apparatus is constructed in
function of finding identities" (Salatino, 2009).
Neurobiological-transcursive bases of the Freudian psychic
apparatus
To speak of a 'psychic physiology' it is essential to base it on a specific
anatomy and physiology. We will address some aspects of the anatomy and
physiology of the brain which, As we see it, give support this very special
functional state we call psyche.
Taking into account the above, we next give some biological and theoretical
guidelines on which the proposed psychic physiology is constituted; These
guidelines are based on Salatino (2012 and 2013). From them, reference is
made to Freud's Theory of Psychic Apparatus described above.
1. The psyche is structured in a way homologous to the surrounding reality and
in total agreement with the ‘real systems’10 (Salatino, 2009); That is, it is based
on the same logic. So, too, Freud understood in his approach to the 1st and
2nd Topic and in the Project.
1.1.In order for such homology to be possible, is essential a perceptual
apparatus, which serves both the external and the interior environment,
that Freud locate in neurons φ and ω.
2. The temporal coordination of the ‘operative units’11 (Salatino, 2009) of each
real system creates a functional geometry12 (Llinás, 2003) that, at the same
time, give the structural basis. The psychic apparatus, in this way, is
constituted by a series of structural units, that temporarily linked, give support
their function, which is carried out in two integrated levels, the superficial and
9
Logic tetravalent (as opposed to classical logic that is bivalent) that makes it possible to approach
evolution (elapse) Of the subjective aspects of any living being, including man. It covers both the volitional
aspects and the The cognitive ones, that are given in the subjective reality.
10
Aspects in which, arbitrarily, reality is divided with the object of its study. There are three: psycho-
internal, bioexternal and socio-cultural.
11
Operational unit or universal autonomous pattern (PAU). It is the fundamental logical core of reality.
12
Structural arrangement of a topological nature that seeks to represent, in each operational unit defined
in reality, in addition to static relationships, those that result from the evolutionary, that is, from the
functional in each of them. This concept was introduced by Llinás to leave constancy of a kind of
temporary map that Handled by the thalamus-cortical system, gives sustenance to subjectivity.

13. 13
the deep. This explains the relation function / structure in the experiences of
satisfaction and pain, and in the Freudian topicals.
2.1.The psychic apparatus is considered as a temporary (synchronous)
assembly of two cycles with opposing directions of rotation, which allow
to 'retain', in its discourse, aspects that arise from the contact that the
psyche maintains with the outside, either extracorporeal or from within of
the organism, and of those arising from its own functioning. The
superficial and deep psychic functioning, clearly, is put in evidence in the
Freudian theory of the Interpretation of the dreams; And the opposite,
complementary and concurrent turns, can be seen in the Project, when
he explains the relation between the idea contained in an experience, as
a representative of the superficial world, and desire as a demander of the
deep, represented in the drive; these two systems are mediated by
thinking.
3. Synchronous neuronal oscillations in the gamma band (20-80 Hz), allow the
neuronal coordination that gives origin to the transient memory, those of more
low range; and to the states of consciousness and cognitive processes, the
middle and high range respectively. This proposal of temporal coordinations
is the hypothesis developed by Salatino (Salatino, 2013, p. 49), based on the
findings of Llinás and collaborators.
3.1.The permanent memory is sustained in the same psychic structure. This
is similar to the facilitations and mnemonic traces of the Project, which are
records of experiences with structural and functional characteristics.
4. There is a circuit of neurons with an operative center in the thalamus, which
acts as a pacemaker, and whose regulation would be mainly due to the
reticular substance of each of the nerve centers that make up the circuit. This
was also suggested by Freud when he proposed a mechanism of attention
and pulsating tracking, which interspersed states of consciousness with states
of unconsciousness in intervals, as we have seen on the magic slate.
4.1.This neuronal support would give rise to the coordination of two circuits:
a superficial one (Dextrorotatory loop) that would attend the contact with
the outside and prepare the answers, and another deep one (Left-turn
loop) that would be in charge to modulate the outputs in function of the
inputs, giving 'sense' to what is coming and able to operate even in the
absence of external inputs.
4.2.These two loops (superficial and deep) are related in a complex way: they
are opposite, complementary and operate concurrently (at the same
time). Despite the synchrony, the temporal behavior is different. The
surface loop operates at constant frequency (40 Hz - Llinás, 1993), while
the deep loop operates at a variable frequency (20 - 80 Hz). There is only
one way to explain that this behavior is simultaneous, and it is by
accepting that each loop operates different time references; that is, the
superficial cycle is handled with external time (quantitative or discrete,
that of dating) and the deep cycle does it with internal time (qualitative or
continuous, that of the subjective - Salatino, 2013).
4.3.The functional units are arranged in columnar form and are operated by
the thalamocortical resonant columns, which Llinás (Llinás, 2003, p.412)
establishes them as the basic functional units of consciousness and, for
Salatino (2013), represent true pacemakers.

14. 14
5. Both the states of consciousness and those of sleep are discontinuous and of
pulsating nature. They last what Kristofferson (1984) established as the
'cognitive quantum'; or 12.5 msec and represent, as demonstrated by Llinás
(1993), a kind of system of tracing face-caudal, that runs through the cerebral
cortex during that time.
5.1.Psychological functioning alternates periods of 'unconsciousness' of a
duration equal to those of consciousness (12.5 msec), in which significant
processes take place, such as: part of the burden of transient memory
and most of the cognitive processes themselves.(Salatino, 2009).
5.2.The volitional processes take place throughout the period between cycles,
that is, during 25 msec at a frequency - oscillation pattern - of 40 Hz
(Llinás, 1993, p.2078) since, the consciousness does not necessarily
have to participate for that are carried out.
6. There are two types of 'knowledge' that arise: I) the shared by all animals and
that is revealed through of the PAF. These, representing finished volitional
models, promote one of the primordial functions of the brain: the prediction
(Llinás, 2003, p.25), on which learning and knowledge are based; and II) the
knowledge that derives from the cognitive process itself, human heritage,
where takes root the symbolic management, that is, comprehend, like what
happens with the natural language of man. (Salatino, 2012, p.364)
7. Outside states of consciousness, this psyche can handle other functional
states. Among them, sleep in its two main variants: a) REM sleep (Rapid Eye
Movement) and b) NON-REM sleep.
7.1.Like any functional condition, sleep is operated by a pacemaker. In the
case of the REM sleep is the same as the one used during the vigil (Llinás,
1993), and in the non-REM sleep, where the oscillation frequency is very
low, would be dispersed throughout the cortex.
7.2.The difference between wakefulness and REM sleep is established at the
management level of the perceptual system. There is a double perception
system: 1) external perceptual apparatus (APE) and 2) internal perceptual
apparatus (API). These devices function as deterministic finite
automata13, which operate, in a waking state, inputs from the outside and
inside of the organism, respectively. During the REM sleep, with the same
frequency as during wakefulness, the perceptual apparatuses are unified
into a single system, they become a single indeterministic finite
automaton14, turning attention 'inward'. The external is replaced by the
permanent memory that is accessed discronically (the 'external time' is
not operative so dreaming is timeless) and the internal is relegated to the
past. It remains operative part of the transient memory, so we remember
what we dream for some time and is attended by a single threshold, which
makes only an intense stimulus (external or internal) can restore the state
of consciousness. Freud, in the Project, records most of the above, in the
points: [19] Primary processes - Sleep and dreams, [20] The analysis of
13
A logical behavior model that consists of four elements: a) states that define a behavior and can
generate actions, b) transition or change from one state to another, c) rules or conditions that must be
met to allow a change of state, and d) Input events that can be external or generated internally and allow
the activation of the rules and therefore, empower the transitions. The deterministic model handles a
single final state. (Author's Note)
14
Logical behavior model that handles more than one final state. (Author's Note)

15. 15
dreams, [21] The consciousness of sleep, and in timelessness of the
unconscious.
7.3.During non-REM sleep, whose oscillations are very low frequency, the
ability to access the 'synchronous history' is lost, and it operates with
minimal attention to the basics, but with a lower threshold for internal
emergencies. The perceptual system thus becomes an instinctive PAF,
which is a reflection with greater complexity and greater sensitivity to
sudden changes, both internal and external.
8. From the perspective of Transcursive logic, the three functional levels
described in the psyche: wakefulness, REM sleep and non-REM sleep,
correspond to the planes representing the three basic surficial contextures:
object, change and subject and in its neuropsychic disposition with
complementary identities.
According to what has been said, it is clear that in this work the psyche is
considered as an integration of ideas and thoughts, that is, of a structure and a
function. In this way, on a sort of surface plot that serves as the primordial psychic
structure or psychic DNA, the external appearance is captured in an idea. In an
opposing and complementary composition the deep function unfolds which,
taking the superficial (idea) as argument, constitutes thought.
Conclusions
Throughout this work we have had direct contact with, in my estimation, the most
original contribution of Freud, and which, as we have seen, set important
precedents, not only in psychology, but in medicine.
His proposal of the neuron as an operative unit of the central nervous system,
both in structural and functional, establishes a 'way of seeing' the psychic as
deeply rooted in the biological.
Based on his research (and not on his conjectures as some of his detractors
suggest), Freud elaborates a solid theory of psychic functioning, which, as we
have seen, is largely in keeping with very recent findings, which gives it Absolute
preeminence to his theoretical writings, but in addition, and here, if he advanced
considerably ahead of his time, leaves well established the bases for the psychic
approach through Psychoanalysis, invoking a logic that is far from the one that
manages and is sustenance of the scientific approach that he wanted to give it to
his discoveries.
We refer to the very important coincidence of psychoanalytic precepts with their
homonyms in the Transcursive logic, which is why, neither then nor now,
Psychoanalysis can be approached from traditional science, for the simple
reason that its object of study, the psyche, is one of the fundamental elements of
subjectivity, and this as a motive for research, vanishes in the scientific field,
where, not only is not taken into account, but is proscribed.
In view of the contributions made by Freud, as we have shown, if he had
presented his project as a doctoral thesis, he would surely have obtained the title
with the highest honors; And if he had continued his very well targeted
investigations, he would have been awarded a nomination of at least five Nobel
Prizes in Medicine, according to the following detail:

16. 16
1906 - Santiago Ramón y Cajal: To discover the morphology and connections
between nerve cells, and to develop the 'doctrine of the neuron', from the fact that
the brain tissue is composed of individual cells.
1932 - Charles Scott Sherrington: For his contributions on neuronal functioning,
including the well-known Sherrington's Law or reciprocal innervation, which
states that when a muscle is contracted as a result of a nervous action, the
antagonistic muscles receive a Signal that inhibits them.
1936 - Otto Loewi: On Saturday night of Easter 1932, this German physiologist
dreamed of an experiment that would finally allow him to prove that the nerve
impulses were transmitted in a chemical rather than an electric form. He woke
up, wrote down the experiment on paper, and went back to sleep. The next
morning he woke up very excited with the idea, knowing that his dream had been
important. To his horror, he discovered that he could not decipher the scribbles
of dream memories. Loewi later confessed that this was the longest day of his
life, having been unable to remember the dream. Fortunately, that same night he
dreamed the same experiment again. This time, he got up immediately and went
to the laboratory to execute it. He had discovered the neurotransmitters, which
was why he was awarded the Nobel Prize.
1970 - Bernard Katz: By explaining how messages are transmitted between
nerves and muscles, by demonstrating that the electrical impulses that run
through the nerve fibers in form of spike sequence, send a precise message
through the synaptic space and mediated by a neurotransmitter, which was able
to generate in the other cell a very precise electrical impulse.
1973 - Nikolaas Tinbergen: For the discovery of the organization and diffusion
of individual and social patterns of behavior (PAF = fixed action pattern).
2011 - Rodolfo Llinás: Nominated for the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his
contributions to Neurobiology; some of them are: a) the discovery of dendritic
inhibition in central neurons, b) the definition of cerebellar function from an
evolutionary perspective, c) the functional organization of the neural circuits of
the cerebellar cortex, d) the discovery of The existence of presynaptic calcium
currents, and e) the discovery that vertebrate neurons are capable of generating
calcium-dependent action potentials, resulting in what is known as Llinás's law or
no neuronal interchangeability something Freud intuited and described 93 years
earlier.
Hebb's neurophysiological postulate, which deserves no award at all, made
Donald Hebb the father of modern biopsychology, the inspiration for artificial
neural networks and large part of the current Artificial Intelligence, which are
based on the 'Hebb's learning' (Freudian facilitation). As a curious detail, says
Hebb, who looking for work as a laborer, despite being a teacher, through Canada
found the work of Sigmund Freud. Hebb describes Freud as follows: "Obviously
he is a very interesting guy but, in my opinion, it is not very rigorous." Thus, at
age 23, Hebb thought: "It may not be too late for me to enter this field where,
obviously, there is room to continue working"; And thus begins the career of
Psychology in his native Canada, and ends up doctoring himself in 1936 at
Harvard.

17. 17
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This is the own translation of the original article "El Proyecto de Freud" appeared
in Psicoanálisis (the journal of the Asociación Psicoanalítica Colombiana), Vol.
XXIV (1-2); pp. 43-60, 2013.