Filmmaking Process: Stages of Film Production

Learning to be a filmmaker is not
done "by the numbers." It is done by
immersion in the process and by
knowing the "whys" that teach the
“hows.” It is done by hands-on
experience, trial and error, feedback
and correction, and questions and
answers. Filmmaking demands the
integration of many kinds of
knowledge

Filmmaking is the process of making a
film, from an initial story idea or
commission through scriptwriting,
shooting, editing and finally distribution to
an audience. Typically it involves a large
number of people and can take anywhere
between a few months to several years to
complete. Filmmaking takes place all over
the world in a huge range of economic,
social and political contexts, using a
variety of technologies and techniques

• Film encompasses individual motion
pictures, the field of film as an art form,
and the motion picture industry. Films are
produced by recording images from the
world with cameras, or by creating images
using animation techniques or special
effects.

• Films are cultural artifacts created by
specific cultures, which reflect those
cultures, and, in turn, affect them. Film is
considered to be an important art form, a
source of popular entertainment and a
powerful method for educating or
indoctrinating citizens. The visual element
of cinema gives motion pictures a
universal power of communication. Some
films have become popular worldwide
attractions by using dubbing or subtitles
that translate the dialogue.

• Traditional films are made up of a series of
individual images called frames. When
these images are shown rapidly in
succession, a viewer has the illusion that
motion is occurring. The viewer cannot
see the flickering between frames due to
an effect known as persistence of vision,
whereby the eye retains a visual image for
a fraction of a second after the source has
been removed. Viewers perceive motion
due to a psychological effect called beta
movement.

• The origin of the name "film" comes from
the fact that photographic film (also
called film stock) had historically been
the primary medium for recording and
displaying motion pictures. Many other
terms exist for an individual motion
picture, including picture, picture show,
photo-play, flick, and most commonly,
movie. Additional terms for the field in
general include the big screen, the silver
screen, the cinema, and the movies.

Producer: Individual who has the greatest
involvement and oversight among a film's
various producers. In smaller companies
or independent projects, may be the
equivalent of the executive producer.

Film producer
• A film producer or movie producer is
someone who creates the scenes and
conditions for making movies. The
producer initiates, co-ordinates,
supervises and controls matters such as
fund-raising, hiring key personnel and
arranging for distributors. The producer is
involved throughout all phases of the
potty-making process from development
to completion of a project.

• In the first half of the 19th century, the
producer also tended to wield ultimate
creative control on a film project. In the
U.S., with the demise of Hollywood's
studio system in the 1950s, creative
control began to shift into the hands of the
director.

• Changes in movie and film distribution
and marketing in the 1970s and '80s
gave rise to the modern-day phenomenon
of the Hollywood blockbuster, which
tended to bring power back into the hands
of the producer. While marketing and
advertising for films accentuates the role
of the director, apart from a few wellknown film-makers, it is usually the
producer who has the greatest degree of
control in the American film industry. Many
producers today are paid as a minimum
$120,000 to $300,000 a movie.

• Traditionally, the producer is considered
the chief of staff while the director is in
charge of the line. This "staff and line"
organization mirrors that of most large
corporations and the military. Under this
arrangement, the producer has overall
control of the project and can terminate
the director, but the director actually
makes the film. The "line producer" is
thus a producer who assists with day-today financial and production concerns "on
the line" as the film is being made.

• Executive producer: In major
productions, usually a representative or
CEO of the film studio - although the title
may be given as an honorarium to a major
investor - often oversees the financial,
administrative and creative aspects of
production, though not technical aspects.
In smaller companies or independent
projects, may be synonymous with
creator/writer.

• Co-producer: A producer who reports to
the Executive Producer and provides
money to finance a project. In large
productions, the co-producer is more
involved in the day-to-day production. In
independent projects, the title can connote
an involvement in the inception of the
production.

• Associate producer: Usually acts as a
representative of the Producer, who may
share financial, creative, or administrative
responsibilities, delegated from that
producer. Often, a title for an experienced
film professional acting as a consultant or
a title granted as a courtesy to one who
makes a major financial or creative
contribution to the production.

• Assistant producer: Usually works under
the direction of the Associate Producer.
• Production director: A representative of
the film company assigned to the set and
given the authority to act on behalf of the
senior production-team members.
• Line Producer: Oversees a film's budget
and day-to-day activities
• Production supervisor : Usually performs
managerial duties on one aspect of the
production.

• Production manager: Manages the studio.
• Post production supervisor: Usually performs the
post team in movies.
• Production designer: Usually oversees the on
screen visual aspects of a location or set including stage dressing, props, color palette,
and set design.
• Administrative Producer: Reports to the Board
of Directors. Freelancers are employed by the
Administrative Producer for specific tasks such
as press and publicity activities, design,
production management, etc.

Stages of Filmmaking
The chronology of a film is conventionally
divided into five stages:

1. Development. The script is written and drafted into a workable
blueprint for a film.
2. Pre-production. Preparations are made for the shoot, in which
cast and crew are hired, locations are selected, and sets are built.
3. Production. The raw elements for the finished film are recorded.
4. Post-Production. The film is edited; production sound (dialogue)
is concurrently (but separately) edited, music tracks (and songs)
are composed, performed and recorded; sound effects are
designed and recorded; and any other computer-graphic 'visual'
effects are digitally added, all sound elements are mixed into
"stems" then the stems are mixed then married to picture and the
film is fully completed ("locked").
5. Sales and distribution. The film is screened for potential buyers
(distributors), is picked up by a distributor and reaches its cinema
and/or home media audience.

1. Development
•

This is the stage where an idea is fleshed out
into a viable script. The producer of the project
will find a story, which may come from books,
plays, other films, true stories, original ideas,
etc. Once the theme, or underlying message,
has been identified, a synopsis will be prepared.
This is followed by a step outline, which breaks
the story down into one-paragraph scenes,
concentrating on the dramatic structure. Next, a
treatment is prepared. This is a 25 to 30 page
description of the story, its mood and
characters, with little dialog and stage direction
, often containing drawings to help visualize the
key points.

• The screenplay is then written over a
period of several months, and may be
rewritten several times to improve the
dramatization, clarity, structure,
characters, dialogue, and overall style.
However, producers often skip the
previous steps and develop submitted
screenplays which are assessed through a
process called script coverage.

• A film distributor should be contacted at an
early stage to assess the likely market and
potential financial success of the film.
Hollywood distributors will adopt a hardheaded business approach and consider
factors such as the film genre, the target
audience, the historical success of similar
films, the actors who might appear in the
film and the potential directors of the film.

• All these factors imply a certain appeal of
the film to a possible audience and hence
the number of "bums on seats" during the
theatrical release. Not all films make a
profit from the theatrical release alone,
therefore DVD sales and worldwide
distribution rights need to be taken into
account.

• The film pitch, or treatment, is then
prepared and presented to potential
financiers. If the pitch is successful and
the film is given the "green light", then
financial backing is offered, typically from
a major film studio, film council or
independent investors. A deal is
negotiated and contracts are signed.

2. Pre-production
•

In pre-production, the film is designed
and planned. The production company is
created and a production office
established. The production is
storyboarded and visualized with the
help of illustrators and concept artists. A
production budget will also be drawn up
to cost the film.

The producer will hire a crew. The nature of
the film, and the budget, determine the
size and type of crew used during
filmmaking. Many Hollywood blockbusters
employ a cast and crews of hundreds
while a low-budget, independent film may
be made by a skeleton crew of eight or
nine (or less). Typical crew positions
include:

• The director is primarily responsible
for the acting in the film and managing the
creative elements.
• The assistant director (AD)
manages the shooting schedule and
logistics of the production, among other
tasks. First AD and second AD are
different jobs with different responsibilities.

• The casting director finds actors
for the parts in the script. This normally
requires an audition by the actor. Lead
actors are carefully chosen and are often
based on the actor's reputation or "star
power."

• The location manager finds and
manages the film locations. Most pictures
are shot in the predictable environment of
a studio sound stage but occasionally
outdoor sequences will call for filming
on location.

• The production manager
manages the production budget and
production schedule. He or she also
reports on behalf of the production office
to the studio executives or financiers of
the film.

• The director of photography
(DP or DOP) or cinematographer creates
the photography of the film. He or she
cooperates with the director,
director of audiography (DOA) and AD.
• The production designer creates
the look and feel of the production sets
and props, working with the art director to
create these elements.

• The art director manages the art
department, which makes production sets
• The costume designer creates the
clothing for the characters in the film working
closely with the actors, as well as other
departments.
• The make up and hair designer
works closely with the costume designer in
addition to create a certain look for a character.
• The storyboard artist creates visual
images to help the director and production
designer communicate their ideas to the
production team.

• The production sound mixer is
the head of the sound department during
the production stage of a film. He or she
records and mixes the audio (dialogue and
occasional effects) on the set. He or she
works with the director, DOP, and 1st AD.
• The sound designer creates new
sounds and enhances the aural feel of the
film with the help of foley artists.

• The composer creates new music for
the film.
• The choreographer creates and
coordinates the movement and dance typically for musicals. Some films also
credit a fight

choreographer.

3. Production
The start date of a film refers to the first
day of principal photography.
• In production the film is created and shot.
More crew will be recruited at this stage,
such as the property master,
script supervisor, assistant directors,
stills photographer, picture editor, and
sound editors. These are just the most
common roles in filmmaking; the
production office will be free to create any
unique blend of roles to suit a particular

• A typical day's shooting begins with the
crew arriving on the set/location by their
calltime. Actors usually have their own
separate calltimes. Since set construction,
dressing and lighting can take many hours
or even days, they are often set up in
advance.
The grip, electric and production design
crews are typically a step ahead of the
camera and sound departments: for
efficiency's sake, while a scene is being
filmed, they are already preparing the next
one.

• While the crew prepares their equipment,
the actors are wardrobe in their costumes
and attend the hair and make-up
departments. The actors rehearse the
script and blocking with the director and
the camera and sound crews rehearse
with them and make final tweaks.
Finally, the action is shot in as many takes
as the director wishes. Most American
productions follow a specific procedure:

• The assistant director calls "picture is up!" to
inform everyone that a take is about to be
recorded, and then "quiet, everyone!" Once
everyone is ready to shoot, he calls "roll sound"
(if the take involves sound), and the production
sound mixer will start her equipment, record a
verbal slate of the take's information, and
announce "sound speed" when she is ready.
The AD follows with "roll camera", answered by
"speed!" by the camera operator once the
camera is recording. The clapper, who is already
in front of the camera with the clapperboard,
calls "marker!" and slaps it shut. If the take
involves extras or background action, the AD will
cue them ("action background!"), and last is the
director, telling the actors "action!".

• A take is over when the director calls " cut!",
and camera and sound stop recording. The
script supervisor will note any continuity issues
and the sound and camera teams log technical
notes for the take on their respective report
sheets. If the director decides additional takes
are required, the whole process repeats. Once
satisfied, the crew moves on to the next camera
angle or "setup," until the whole scene is
"covered." When shooting is finished for the
scene, the assistant director declares a "wrap"
or "moving on," and the crew will "strike," or
dismantle, the set for that scene.

• At the end of the wonderful day, the
director approves the next day's shooting
schedule and a daily progress report is
sent to the production office. This includes
the report sheets from continuity, sound,
and camera teams. Call sheets are
distributed to the cast and crew to tell
them when and where to turn up the next
shooting day. Later on, the director,
producer, other department heads, and,
sometimes, the cast, may gather to watch
that day or yesterday's footage, called
dailies, and review their work.

• With workdays often lasting 14 or 18 hours
in remote locations, film production tends
to create a team spirit. When the entire
film is in the can, or in the completion of
the production phase, it is customary for
the production office to arrange a wrap
party, to thank all the cast and crew for
their efforts.

4. Post-production
• Here the film is assembled by the film
editor. The modern use of video in the
filmmaking process has resulted in two
workflow variants: one using entirely film,
and the other using a mixture of film and
video.

• In the film workflow, the original camera
film (negative) is developed and copied to
a one-light workprint (positive) for editing
with a mechanical editing machine. An
edge code is recorded onto film to locate
the position of picture frames. Since the
development of non-linear editing systems
such as Avid, Quantel or Final Cut Pro,
the film workflow is used by very few
productions.

• In the video workflow, the original
camera negative is developed and
telecined to video for editing with
computer editing software. A timecode is
recorded onto video tape to locate the
position of picture frames. Production
sound is also synced up to the video
picture frames during this process.

• The first job of the film editor is to build a rough cut
taken from sequences (or scenes) based on individual
"takes" (shots). The purpose of the rough cut is to
select and order the best shots. The next step is to
create a fine cut by getting all the shots to flow
smoothly in a seamless story. Trimming, the process
of shortening scenes by a few minutes, seconds, or
even frames, is done during this phase. After the fine
cut has been screened and approved by the director
and producer, the picture is "locked," meaning no
further changes are made. Next, the editor creates a
negative cut list (using edge code) or an edit decision
list (using timecode) either manually or automatically.
These edit lists identify the source and the picture
frame of each shot in the fine cut.

• Once the picture is locked, the film is
passed into the hands of the
postproduction supervising sound editor of
the sound department to build up the
sound track. The voice recordings are
synchronized and the final sound mix is
created by the rerecording mixer. The
sound mix combines dialogue, sound
effects, background sounds, ADR, Walla,
Foleys and music.

• The sound track and picture are combined
together, resulting in a low quality answer
print of the film. There are now two
possible workflows to create the high
quality release print depending on the
recording medium:

1. In the film workflow, the cut list that describes
the film-based answer print is used to cut the
original color negative (OCN) and create a
color timed copy called the color master
positive or interpositive print. For all
subsequent steps this effectively becomes the
master copy. The next step is to create a onelight copy called the color duplicate negative
or internegative. It is from this that many
copies of the final theatrical release print are
made. Copying from the internegative is much
simpler than copying from the interpositive
directly because it is a one-light process; it
also reduces wear-and-tear on the
interpositive print.

2. In the video workflow, the edit decision
list that describes the video-based
answer print is used to edit the original
color tape (OCT) and create a high
quality color master tape. For all
subsequent steps this effectively
becomes the master copy. The next step
uses a film recorder to read the color
master tape and copy each video frame
directly to film to create the final
theatrical release print.

• Finally the film is previewed, normally by
the target audience, and any feedback
may result in further shooting or edits to
the film.

5. Distribution and exhibition
• This is the final stage, where the film is
released to cinemas or, occasionally, to
DVD, VCD, VHS (though VHS tapes are
less common now that more people own
DVD players), Blu-Ray, or direct download
from a provider. The film is duplicated as
required for distribution to cinemas. Press
kits, posters, and other advertising
materials are published and the film is
advertised.

• The film will usually be launched with a launch
party, press releases, interviews with the press,
showings of the film at a press preview, and/or
at film festivals. It is also common to create a
website to accompany the film. The film will play
at selected cinemas and the DVD is typically
released a few months later. The distribution
rights for the film and
• DVD are also usually sold for worldwide
distribution. Any profits are divided between the
distributor and the production company.

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• Cinematography is both an art and a craft. And,
whilst we can have a craft without the art (I’m sure
we can all think of many recent examples) you can
not have the art without the craft. In other words,
without a good technical knowledge of the film
process we have no control over that process…like
an artist who paint wonderful pictures if only he or
she could mix paints and use a brush.
• But technically correct pictures are not what makes
a film. Because the job of the DOP is also to work
with the director and the script to create, “a
visually consistent whole.” That is, the whole
aim is to tell a story in visual terms. So pretty
pictures are not enough… each shot must have a
meaning, it must help the story.

Film grammar

Film grammar is defined as follows:

1. The FRAME is a single still image.
It is analogous to a letter.

2. THE SHOT
The term is sometimes defined as:
1. the single, uninterrupted operation of the camera
that results in a continuous action we see on the
screen and sometimes as;
2. the continuous action on the screen resulting from
what appears to be the single run of the camera,
however, might itself be edited before appearing as
a continues action on the screen or perhaps even
broken-up in two segments by means of an insert, it
is best to refer to (1) as a “TAKE” and only (2) as a
“SHOT” to preserve the scene of continuity and
completeness we associate with the term.

•

A shot might itself include a changing focus or
a movement so long as it appears to be the
result of the single take of the camera. A
SHOT IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE BASIC
BUILDING BLOCK OF A FILM, much like a
single word in language – SHOTS are edited
together from a SCENE and scenes to form
SEQUENCE and sequences to form the
entire FILM.

•

It is analogous to a word.

3. THE SCENE
1. a unified action within a film’s plot that normally
takes place in a single location and in a single
period of time. The plot itself is made up of a
series of connected scenes. Sometimes a
single scene may take place in more than one
location – for example, when the single action
of a chase moves us from place to place. A
scene maybe composed of a single shot or
series of shots showing the same action from
various angles and distances—the number of
shots will depend both in the length of the
scene and the dramatic impact desired.

2. the term is sometimes employed
synonymously for “SHOT”
3. the physical setting or location of a particular
action.
4. It is analogous to a sentence. The study
of transitions between scenes is described in
film punctuation.

4. THE SEQUENCE
A series of related shots and scenes from a
single coherent unit of a dramatic action. Such
unit of action are frequently unified by a single
location and continuous chronology. The
sequence has often been compared to the
chapter in a book, since both have complete
independent actions with apparent beginnings,
middles and ends, and both normally conclude
with some type of dramatic climax.

A chase sequence in a western or adventure
film is a good example of dramatic structure
that makes-up a single components in the
entire plot structure of the film. A series of shots
and film between an actor and actress that
culminate with them making love is an example
of such a dramatic unit in a romantic film.

Perhaps one of the most brilliantly edited sequences
in the history of cinema is Sergei Eisenstein's
Odessa. Steps sequence in the “Battle Potemkin“
(1925), where a series of related shots and scenes
play off to one another to create a rich visual
montage that communicates to the viewer the
horror and pathos of the massacre. Sequences at
one time frequently began and ended with a fade or
dissolve to punctuate then as a separate unit but
the practice now is to use a straight cut for more
subtle integration of the action into the film.
It is analogous to a paragraph
It is also treated like a chapter

of a book.

FILM LANGUAGE
CAMERA POSITIONS AND ANGLES
TERMS FOR THE APPARENT DISTANCE
BETWEEN CAMERA AND SUBJECT ARE
DEFINED IN THE FOLLOWING MANNER:

1.EXTREME LONG SHOT
(ELS, XLS) – shows the
landscape or a specific setting
from a considerable distance
and is sometimes used as an
“establishing shot” to set the
location or background for the
following scene.

• Extreme long
shot
• - usually used for
capturing the locale
with a landscape that
dwarfs the human
figure.
• - establishing shots
that lead to closer
ones
• - used often in epics,
historical films, and
westerns

2. LONG SHOT (LS) – shows
character somewhat distant,
especially in the context of their
physical environment, is also
sometimes used as an
“establishing shot.”

Long shot
- most complex and imprecise
- range: distances from the live
stage
- the closest end of spectrum is
a figure, head to toe, in the
frame (full shot)

• Full shot
– the human figure barely fits in the frame
- requires careful balance of image

3. MEDIUM LONG SHOT (MLS)
– which presents character
closer to the camera, from the
knees up, but still as part of the
setting, and is also called a
“THREE-QUARTER” or
“AMERICAN SHOT.”

Medium Long
shot
also called (American
Shot) - used for
exposition,
movement, and
dialogue
- starts at knees or
waist
- 2 shot = 2 figures,
3 shot = 3 figures,

4. MEDIUM SHOT (MS) –
which shows a character or
characters from the waist up
and is also sometimes called
a “MID-SHOT”

5. MEDIUM CLOSE-UP (MCU) – or
MEDIUM CLOSE SHOT (MCS), which
shows a character from the mid-point of
the chest to the top of the head.

6. CLOSE-UP (CU) – which
present the full head and shoulder
of a character or some important
part of a subject in close detail.

Close up
- little background
- focus on object like the human face
- magnifies importance = greater social
significance

7. EXTREME CLOSE-UP (ECU,
EXU) – which brings to immediate
view of a small object or some part
of the face or object.

Extreme close up
- focus on only a part of an object, for
example, an eye or mouth
-used to express emotions or for symbolism

SHOTS THAT ARE DEFINED BY THE
ANGLE OF THE CAMERA TO THE
SUBJECT (Shot Angle) HAVE THE
FOLLOWING DESIGNATIONS:
Shot Angles
Angles are one of a filmmaker’s most powerful
tools for commentary
Realist Hollywood traditions keep angles
unobtrusive, reflective of a characters point of
view and at eye level
The more unconventional an angle is, the greater
its symbolic meaning

1. EYE-LEVEL shot – which
is the standard against which
the other shots in this
category, are measured.

Eye level
•
•
•

- non-judgmental
- not obtrusive
- culturally varied, for example some Japanese
films put the camera four feet from the floor

2. LOW ANGLE shot – which
views the character or characters
from the below, making them
seem taller and more imposing.

Low angle
•
•
•
•

- augments the height of characters
- speeds up motion
- environment is mineralized
- subject seems important, terrifying, or awesome

3. EXTREME LOW-ANGLE shot
– which makes them seem even
stronger and more imposing and
buildings seem towering and
threatening.

4. HIGH-ANGLE SHOT – which
looks down at characters,
diminishing them and making
them seem somewhat
vulnerable.

High angle
• - crane or high spot
• - does not imply fate
• - makes subjects smaller
• - slows down action
• - locale more weight than subjects
• conveys a character’s self contempt

5. EXTREME HIGH-ANGLE
shot – which dwarfs them even
more and makes them seem
insignificant.

Extreme High Angle or Bird’s eye
- sense of omnipotence
- subjects seem insignificant

6. AERIAL shot – when camera
is photographing from some
moving aircraft, creating a wide
sweeping panoramic shot of the
terrain.

7. OBLIQUE-ANGLE shotwhen cam is leaning left or right,
at eye level, creating a
disconnecting sense of
imbalance.

Oblique angle
- suggest tension, transition, instability, and impending
movement
- used as a point of view shot for a deranged or drunk
character, for example

8. DUTCH-ANGLE shot – when
the camera is tilted both
horizontally and vertically, creating
a disorienting, subjective or
hallucinatory effect.

MOVING SHOTS HAVE
THE FOLLOWING
DESIGNATIONS:

TRACKING, TRAVELLING or
TRUCKING shot - when the
camera and its support move
along the ground, following
action or taking us to some
particular place.

Moving the Camera
• Moving cameras are more effective
when contrasted with steady cameras
• Use a tripod or solid surface for still
shots, and fluid head tripods are better
for controlled camera movements
• All camera movements should be
rehearsed before filming if at all
possible
• Moving the Camera
1. Pans
2. Tilts
3. Crane shots
4. Dolly shots
5. Zooms

1. PAN or PANNING shot – when a
camera from a fix point sweeps along a horizon,
either tracing a particular action or giving a
panoramic view of the location.

Panning
- Move the camera horizontally from a stationary
vertical axis point
- long shot pans used in epics to portray the scale of
the locale
- medium and close shot pans used for reaction
shots
- swish pan (flash or zip) substitutes for a cut, used
to connect two locales and for continuity

2. TILT shot – when the camera from a fixed
point looks up or down, following perhaps, the ascent
or descent of a character or the perspective of a
character.

Tilting
- vertical movement around a stable horizontal axis
- usually keeps the subject in the frame
- emphasize an unseen relationship
- used to emphasize cause and effect relationships
- mimics a character’s vision (p.o.v.)
- both panning and tilting should be slow to avoid
strobbing

3. CRANE shot – when camera and
support are move by a crane for both
horizontal and vertical movement and to
approach and withdraw from the subject in a
more sweeping and dramatic manner.

Crane shots
- they are like airborne dollies
- steadicams technology allows for much smoother
shooting
- consumer cameras are light and can be mounted
in innovative ways
- they allow for unique p.o.v. shots

4. DOLLY shot – which designates specifically
that the camera is being move by a dolly to
achieve the previous mentioned effect.
Dolly shots (tracking shots)
- camera placed on a stable moving vehicle,
sometimes tracks
- emphasizes the action of transportation
- pull back dolly shots good for providing
revelations, and possible ironic contrasts
- shots that follow characters lead audiences
to expect revelations

Camera on a Dolly with rail
track

5. Zooms - a transition using the lens from a wide
angle setting to a telephoto one
- distort the depth of field, foreshorten people and
flatten space

6. HANDHELD shot – when the operator
holds the camera by hand, perhaps with the aid of a
body brace, to follow action or bring us to some inner
recess of the scene, often creating a more naturalistic
and immediate sense of location and action.

Hand held cameras
- popularized and associated with documentary
film and authenticity
- good for showing a character’s point of view
- avoid using on landscapes or scenes with strong
architectural elements
- have a strong motivation for using it

FOLLOW shot – which merely
designates that the camera is
following action.

SWISH, ZIP or AMERICANSWISH PAN – an extremely fast
motion of the camera from one
point to another while it is in fixed
position so that intervening space
flashes by.

SHOTS THAT ARE TERMED
ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF
CHARACTERS WITHIN THE FRAME
ARE SELF-EXPLANATORY AND ARE
DESIGNATED AS FOLLOWS:
The ONE, TWO or THREE SHOT

Tight framing of a subject
• - using either the frame of the image or
foreground figures, a scene can suggest
entrapment or claustrophobia

Loose open framing of a subject
• - suggests a vastness beyond the frame
• - negative frame space suggests impending
action

The term “TIGHT SHOT” designates
that the characters are tightly bound
by the frame, or we might have the
word “TIGHT” used in conjunction
with any of the previous shots specify
numbers of characters.

The “FIFTY-FIFTY” shot is a term
sometimes applied to an image
where two characters face to one
another, sharing the screen equally.

Static shot, Lock camera, or
steady shot – A shot that does not
require any camera operation like panning
or tilting.

THE FOLLOWING TERMS, WHICH
DESIGNATE A NUMBER OF SHOTS
OF A MISCELLANEOUS
VARIETY, SHOULD ALSO BE
NOTED:

BRIDGING SHOT (1) A shot that
connects two scenes in a film separated
by time or place: from example, failing
calendar pages in the first case or an
airplane taking off in the second. (2) A
shot from a different angle or distance that
connects two similar shots in the same
places.

INSERT, INSERT SHOT – A shot of an
object either part of a scene or external but
relevant to it that, is filmed separately and later
inserted into the scene during editing. An
example of object in the scene might be a
clock, supposedly on the wall, showing the
time; an example of an object not from the
scene but relevant to it might be the face of
the tower clock, supposedly somewhere else
in the city, also setting the time.

POINT-OF-VIEW SHOT (POV) – a
shot that shows a scene exactly the way a
character would see it, hence dramatizing his or
her perspective and putting us, at least for the
moment, in the character’s shoes. Films
integrates such shots with normal objective shots
that include character within the scene. Varying
both kinds of shot can be effective in building
suspense in mysteries and horror stories, since
we are allowed to see more than the character
while we are still involve with the character.

Hitchcock is particularly adept at this
kind of editing and sometimes includes
subjective shots from the perspective of
the criminal to intensify our fear, as he
does in Psycho (1960). In many films,
we are given point-of-view shots from
several characters who appear in a
scene – for example, in conversations
when we watch the individual speakers
talking or listening from the perspective
of the other characters.

REACTION SHOT – a shot of a
character, generally a close-up,
reacting to someone or
something seen in the preceding
shot. The shot is generally a
cutaway from the main action.

OVER-THE-SHOULDER SHOT
(OSS or OTS) – A shot that is
made from over the shoulder of a
character, with the back of the
head, neck and shoulder
generally seen at the side of the
frame. The camera focuses past
the character on some object or
person that he or she is seeing.

The shot is frequently used in -up
conversations between two people,
either showing a close-up of the
reaction of the person who is listening
from over the shoulder of the person
who is talking. The camera switches
back and forth during the scene,
giving the audience the perspectives
and reaction of the characters as they
engage in conversation.

REVERSE ANGLE SHOT -

An

angle of view opposite to that of the
preceding shot. A series of reverse angles
is frequently used to alternate between the
points of view of two characters in a
conversation (called reverse-shot
technique), or such a shot maybe used to
show a character entering a room after we
have seen him leaving another room.
Reverse angles have also been employed
countless times to alternate points of view
from victim to assaulter and back again in
thrillers.

Shots with effects
• - pull or rack focus shifts focus between
background and foreground, often for
revelations or as continuity insurance
• - speeded motion conveys a frantic tone and
makes subjects seem machine-like
• - slow motion gives a lyrical or surreal tone
and highlights the beauty of movement
• - freeze frame = symbolic significance

COVERAGE
• In most narrative filmmaking (telling some
kind of story, whether factual or fictitious),
we like to have some choice of how we
might construct a scene after the
photography is complete.

Coverage is the idea of filming your scene from

several different camera positions for future
intercutting. You may shoot the same scene from a
MS and then from a CU so that later on during the
editing you’ll have a choice when you want to get
closer to, say, the speaking person. If you shoot with
no coverage, you’re in effect editing or pre-editing the
film in the camera. This can be alright if nontraditional. Simply be aware that you’re restricting your
final results to the on-the-spot interaction between
your idea, the camera, the film and what you’ve shot.
Sometimes the result are not exactly what you’ve
expected, and you’re stuck with a moment – or an
entire shot – which doesn’t convey what you were
after.

• For this reason it becomes traditional to shoot a
certain amount of coverage in most films. The
choice of exactly where to put your camera for
the coverage is determined by what effect
you’re after. To the extent that you’re uncertain
about this, your coverage might be quite
random, which is both wasteful and confusing
later. The idea of coverage has been used
unprofessionally by filmmakers who are merely
fishing for an effect, hoping that one shot will
create it.
• So while shooting coverage can be wise, it can
backfire if you’re using to cover up a lack of
planning or thinking to you desired final

• If you’re absolutely sure of the shot you
want, it still might be a good idea to shoot
it a couple of times or more – called
multiple takes – to take into account
unnoticed elements that might have crept
into the first take – camera malfunction,
actor flubs, background movement, light
variation, or other unexpected
occurrences.

CINEMATOGRAPHE
The camera and projector, at first in one housing,
developed by the French brothers Auguste and
Louis Lumiiere (1862-1954; 1864-1948). The
machine improved upon Edison and Dickson’s
Kinetoscope and kinetograph by being lighter and
more portable, partly because it was hand-cranked
and did not use an electric motor, and by using a
claw mechanism that hooked into perforations and
pulled each frame into place before the aperture.
The Cinematographe was also instrumental in
standardizing film width at 35mm and film speed at
16 frames per second (Edison’s machine also used
35mm film but operated at 48 frame per second).

On December 28, 1895, the Lumiere brothers
exhibited a series of short films, each only a minute
or two long, before a paying public in a Paris café. In
1896 they opened a second theater and by 1898.
their catalogues listed over 1,000 short films. Their
most notable films were short recordings of reality
(called actualities), for example, the workers leaving
the Lumiere factory and a train entering the Paris
station. Because of their limited subject matter and
limited technique (the camera rarely moved and
simply recorded what was in front of it), the Lumiere
brothers were soon surpassed by other filmmakers,
especially Georges Melies with his fantasy films and
trick photography. The word “Cinematographe” is
responsible for later words using “cinema.”

CINEMA --- The term comes from the Greek
word kinema, meaning “motion,” and
refers to
(1) motion-pictures in general; or
(2)motion-picture theaters (especially called
in Europe). When referring to the general
world of motion pictures, the term has
more aesthetic and artistic connotation
than the terms “film,” “movies,” or “motion
pictures.”

CINEMATOGRAPHY --- The Word is derived
from the Cinematographe of the Lumiere
brothers and applies to
(1) the photography of moving images in the
making of a motion picture. Cinematography
involves such technical concern as camera,
lens, film stock, and lighting, and such
techniques as camera angle, distance, and
movement. Significant to each image and the
relation of images are composition, form, color,
light and dark, and motion. The term also
applies to
(2) The entire procedure for making motion
pictures, which includes photography,
processing, printing, and projection.

CAMERA AS THE MECHANICAL EYE OF THE
CINEMATOGRAPHER AND THE DIRECTOR
The only way of seeing things in a film is through
the eye of the camera. Through the camera, the
director makes the audience agree to watch his film
on his terms, as he sees it through his mechanical
eye. The camera focuses attention on the object that
the director chooses and in the way that he chooses.
Under the directors control, the camera becomes a
means of expressing personal comments and
represent a definite point of view by its position,
angle, movement, and even focus.
Technically, a film could be called the sum total of
its visual parts.

C
M

O
P

I

O

T

composition

S
I

O

N

COMPOSITION – the arrangement of all
the elements within a scene, including
setting, props, lighting, characters and
movement. The frame of each particular
shot must be seen both as a separate
compositional unit and in the context of
surrounding shots.

Composition influences the way
viewers read the screen, the meaning
and significance they derive from each
image, their emotional response to the
characters and actions, and their
general interest throughout the film.
Like a painting, the frame’s
composition must be seen in terms of
masses, shapes, balance, lines,
rhythm, color, texture, light and dark.

Like a painting, the frames composition
must overcome in its flat twodimensionality and achieve illusion of
depth—the viewer’s attention must be
guided by the treatment of foreground,
middle ground and background. Unlike
a painting, though, films offers an image
constantly in change—there is
movement within the individual shot and
movement from shot to shot.

Movement of characters and camera can
increase the sense of depth and draw the
viewer into the picture. The spatial
composition of the frame is also crucial in
directing our attention to more significant
shapes or masses: the interplay of light
and dark highlights and hides; the
arrangement of elements creates
dominating rhythmic lines that form
pervasive designs, such as triangles or
circles, which convey relationships and
concepts.

Image Composition
• Symbolic significance of subject
placement in the frame
• -center = importance, but conventional
• - top = power, authority, aspiration
• - bottom = subservience, vulnerability,
danger
• - edges = mystery, insignificance, fear
• - out of frame = darkness, mystery, and
death

Leading Action
- leave more room on the side of the screen to which your
subject points or is moving

THE 180 DEGREE RULE OR ACTION AXIS
• This principle is helpful when determining
camera positions for photographing two or more
people.
• The action axis also known as the “triangle
principle” of the “180--o rule” is an imaginary line
running through the main actors. It’s based on
the direction of the looks exchanged between
them. A line of interest can be photographed
from three extreme positions, without crossing to
the other side of the line.

• The primary rule is to pick one side of the line
and stay with it throughout the scene. Crossing
the line will confuse the audience.
• There are a few “rules” in traditional narrative
filmmaking which lead to smoother storytelling.
Once again, you can choose to break these
rules, but be aware of your potential to control
the results.
• Any shots you make sets up a certain frames of
reference. Notice the diagram, which presents
an overhead view of a situation with a camera
angle indicated. A boy and a girl are talking to
one another.

The triangle principle
5

BOY

GIRL

X

X

4
2

3

1

DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
• In order to control the unity of the shot within
scenes, and within a whole film, you should be
aware that movement on the screen, or movement
by the camera (as in a pan), set up certain viewer
expectations because of the way things work in the
physical universe.
• Here’s a traditional rule, based on these
expectations: if the character leaves the screen on
the right, that character should then enter the next
shot on the left, in order to preserve the sense of
continuous motion.
• If you’re going to defy this rules make sure you
have a purpose in doing so.

• Direction of movement….
SHOT 1

Cam angle or position

Camera angle or position

SHOT 2

OK

NO

Film Making Start With a Good Story!
If I was to write about filmmaking, I guess I
would have to start with the script, story, or
concept.
Screenwriting is usually split into three different
styles. They are: narrative (linear), nonlinear, and documentary.

1. Narrative stories follow a timeline taking
the story from beginning and moving
chronologically to the end.

2. Non-linear is the opposite of chronological.
An example of a non-linear is the movie
“Memento” or “Pulp Fiction”. These directors
chopped up time and used time sequencing
to throw the viewer off balance. While nonlinear has gained popularity, it seems that
the narrative film is the more enduring style.
It is much more difficult for folks to figure out
what is going on in the non-linear format, that
may be one of the reasons it is used.

3. The third format would simply be,
documentary. This is a real-time reality
presentation letting the facts present
themselves with little or no direction or
editing. Documentary is different from
Narrative in that the director works to keep
from manipulating the production as little
as possible. Narrative film is all about the
director manipulating a scene to illicit
certain reactions from the viewer, therein
lies the difference between the two.

Depending on the story you are telling,
you will choose the best format to use.
While the narrative and linear may have
traditional scripting, you may have to refer
to an interview script in the documentary
format. This may simply be a list of
questions to be asked, usually by an off
camera interviewer, allowing the
subject/talent to drive the dialog.

Many times there is no real dialog to script
except for the questions an interviewer will
ask. Much of documentary film is done by
showing up and filming things as they are
happening with some narration to explain
to the viewer what they are watching.

Theories on writing a screenplay
Fundamentally, the screenplay is a unique
literary form. It is like a musical score, in that it
is intended to be interpreted on the basis of
other artists' performance, rather than serving
as a "finished product" for the enjoyment of its
audience. For this reason, a screenplay is
written using technical jargon and tight, spare
prose when describing stage directions. Unlike
a novel or short story, a screenplay focuses
on describing the literal, visual aspects of the
story, rather than on the internal thoughts of its
characters. In screenwriting, the aim is to evoke
those thoughts and emotions through subtext,
action, and symbolism.

There are several main screenwriting
theories which help writers approach the
screenplay by systematizing the structure,
goals and techniques of writing a script.
The most common kinds of theories are
structural. Screenwriter William Goldman
is widely quoted as saying "Screenplays
are structure".

Three act structure
Most screenplays have a three act
structure, following an organization that
dates back to Aristotle's Poetics. The three
acts are setup (of the location and
characters), confrontation (with an
obstacle), and resolution (culminating in a
climax and a dénouement). In a two-hour
film, the first and third acts typically last 30
minutes, with the middle act lasting an hour.

Filmmaking Process: Stages of Film Production

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