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An important point to note here is that the value of time differs considerably between different
infrastructure users. The costs of being stuck in a traffic jam are much higher for a lorry
carrying supplies for a production line or a businesswoman hurrying to catch a plane than for
someone whose trip purpose does not depend so much on a specific arrival time. However,
in the present situation without charging for congestion costs, there is no means of allocating
the scarce infrastructure capacity to those who derive the largest benefits from using it. As
a result, money is wasted and society as a whole does not reap the maximum benefit from
its infrastructure networks.




                                              13
Graph 4.2 shows that congestion on
Dutch motorways has doubled in the
past ten years. It gave rise to costs         Congestion on Dutch Motorways

of 0.7 bn ECU in 1994 (0.25% of          200
GDP). The US experience of the past
                                         150
ten years hints at developments in                                              Traffic
congestion that can be expected to       100
                                                                                Congestion
occur in Europe as, in the next           50
decades, EU car ownership levels are
                                           0
forecast to increase and approach                  1986            1994
levels currently prevailing in the US.
In 1991, 47.2% of urban interstate Graph 4.2 : Congestion 1986-1994, 1986=100
mileage took place under congested
conditions, up from 30.6% in 1983. Even on rural interstates congestion is currently
problematic, affecting some 9% of total traffic, having tripled in just eight years (Gramlich
1994).

There is only a limited number of estimates available for congestion costs and most of these
estimates refer to roads. A recent survey by the OECD (Quinet (1994)) puts road congestion
costs in Western industrialised societies at some 2% of GDP. This figure suggests costs of the
order of 120 Billion ECU for the EU as a whole. Estimates for other modes arrive at
significantly lower numbers. For example, congestion costs in European aviation are put at
some 2.4 Billion ECU in a recent study (ECAC (1995)), but this study seems to exclude time
losses of passengers. One study for rail suggests that costs in France total some 0.15 billion
ECU. If this were representative of Europe, total costs would be around 0.85 billion ECU. For
inland waterways congestion costs are negligible as capacity is abundant. No figures are
available for maritime transport.

The conclusion to be drawn from these studies is that congestion represents a major external
cost, which is largely concentrated in road transport.

An important characteristic of congestion is that it varies strongly across space and in time.
Clearly, this is a function of the spatial organisation of Western societies (80% of the
population live in cities) and relatively fixed patterns of work and school over the day and
week.

Table 4.1 presents results from a recent study for road congestion in the UK which strongly
underlines this point. Road congestion is largely concentrated in urban areas. Costs during
peak hour are significantly higher than during off-peak. Whilst traffic in rural areas accounts
for more than 20% of total traffic, its share in total congestion costs is estimated at less than
1%.




                                               14
Table 4.1 : Costs of Congestion in Great Britain, 1993


                                    SHARE IN TOTAL             CONGESTION COSTS                    SHARE IN
                                       COST %                    (pence per car km)               TRAFFIC %

  Motorway                                    1                            0.32                         17
  Urban central peak                          13                          44.74                         1
  Urban central off-peak                      27                          35.95                         3
  Non-central peak                            17                          19.51                         4
  Non-central off-peak                        26                          10.75                         10
  Small town peak                             6                            8.47                         3
  Small town off-peak                         9                            5.17                         7
  Other urban                                 0                            0.08                         14
  Rural dual carriageway                      0                            0.06                         12
  Other trunk and principal                   1                            0.23                         18
  Other rural                                 0                            0.06                         12

  Weighted average                                                         4.18

Source:     Newbery (1995)

The conclusion to be drawn is clear: policies to curb congestion must be differentiated in time
and space. Across the board increases in charges are unlikely to be effective as they do not
allow for the required differentiation. Moreover, they would be unfair. Very strong increases
in such charges would penalise rural areas and would still fall short of what is required in
heavily congested conurbations.

An efficient and equitable solution would thus comprise introducing highly differentiated
charges which vary over time and space. These charges should reflect the cost of congestion
to all transport users and would give citizens an incentive to base their transport decisions on
the full social costs of transport5. This would dissuade those trips of which the total costs are
higher than the concomitant benefits and thereby raise welfare by lowering congestion.

Pricing is only one element of a comprehensive strategy to curb congestion. Other policies
also have an important role to play. For example, the introduction of telematics based traffic
guidance, management and information systems can significantly increase the quot;virtualquot;
capacity of infrastructure networks. Similarly, the provision of efficient public transportation
services, as advocated in the Green Paper on the Citizens' Network, will facilitate the transfer
of travellers from private cars to bus and rail. Moreover, teleworking, teleconferencing, and
teleshopping can all reduce the need for mobility. Clearly, the different components of a
strategy have to dovetail in order to maximise its effects.

The full introduction of such a system would necessitate electronic road charging which has
significant advantages in terms of flexibility and non-interference with traffic flows (as
vehicles would not have to stop at toll stations). Recent systems can fully respect the privacy
of motorists by relying on smart-card technologies. Significant progress has already been
made in developing such telematic systems and a large variety of trials are carried out in the
Union (see Annex 4). The fact that such systems are very close to the market is proven in the
case of Singapore which has awarded a $140 million contract for the building of a system due
to be phased in as of late 1997. Also, Austria has announced its intention to introduce
electronic road pricing systems possibly before the turn of the century. In Germany and the
Netherlands the introduction of road pricing is being considered for the period after 2001.



    5
          It can easily be demonstrated that the charge should be set so as to equal marginal costs which reflect
          the increase in delay and other costs to all other road users and society of an additional unit of transport.

                                                          15
4.4       Congestion charging, efficient infrastructure policies and recovering infrastructure
          costs

It is sometimes argued that the best remedy against congestion is to simply provide more
infrastructure. Notwithstanding the need for additional infrastructure in Europe for other
reasons, this statement is generally untrue: as motorists are discouraged from using a
congested road there is a quot;latentquot; demand which is triggered once extra capacity becomes
available. In the long run congestion will persist. This has been demonstrated by numerous
studies and real-life examples. Apart from introducing bans - which suffer from a wide variety
of disadvantages - the only way to curb congestion in the long run is to set an explicit price
for infrastructure capacity.

The introduction of congestion charging would also bolster the efficient provision of
infrastructure. Efficient infrastructure provision basically entails making decisions on capacity
by comparing the benefits from capacity extensions (e.g. time savings) with the costs
(construction and maintenance): Optimal infrastructure provision requires infrastructure to be
extended to the point where the costs of doing so are no longer outweighed by the benefits.
However, in the absence of congestion charging transport speeds will - in the long run -
always be too low because of the persistence of congestion and at the same time traffic
volumes will be higher than what is desirable. Therefore, in the absence of congestion
pricing, it will generally be attractive to build more infrastructure than that which is socially
desirable. Congestion pricing could hence lead to important savings in resource costs of
infrastructure6.

It has been shown that if infrastructure is provided efficiently and capacity is priced through
congestion charging, both the amount and the use of infrastructure would be such that it is
impossible to accommodate more traffic and higher speeds on the network at costs that are
lower than the associated benefits. The joint use of congestion charging and efficient
investment rules is thus an essential precondition for arriving at a balanced transport system.
Studies for the US have indicated that moving in this direction could lead to annual cost
savings of 7.75 billion dollars - or nearly 18% of total 1982 highway expenditure.

Congestion charging would also raise significant revenues. These revenues could go a long
way to recovering the capital costs of the network and might - if a number of conditions are
met - ensure full recovery (Winston (1985)). Such an approach would have several
advantages. First, the revenues from such charges would remain within the (road) transport
sector and would, therefore, benefit those who pay them. Secondly, these revenues would
allow other taxes which are currently used for the public financing of infrastructure but which
are largely unrelated to the costs of infrastructure use to be cut. Thirdly, revenues could be
used for financing other parts of a comprehensive strategy to deal with congestion (e.g. route
guidance systems, public transport etc.). In the long run, congestion charging holds out the
prospect of reforming transport taxation in a manner that would greatly increase the efficiency
and equity of our transport system.

Clearly, this finding is also of major importance to the financial viability of public private
investment partnerships (PPPs): the introduction of charging would provide a stable revenue
source which could cover large parts of the costs. The Union's objective of furthering PPPs
in infrastructure, is an additional reason for introducing road pricing.




      6
            Moreover, it can be demonstrated that an efficient congestion charge is a helpful guide for making
            infrastructure decisions. Newbery (1988) shows that if the congestion charge is higher than the costs
            of building more infrastructure, it is generally attractive to expand the capacity of the network.

                                                       16

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  • 1. An important point to note here is that the value of time differs considerably between different infrastructure users. The costs of being stuck in a traffic jam are much higher for a lorry carrying supplies for a production line or a businesswoman hurrying to catch a plane than for someone whose trip purpose does not depend so much on a specific arrival time. However, in the present situation without charging for congestion costs, there is no means of allocating the scarce infrastructure capacity to those who derive the largest benefits from using it. As a result, money is wasted and society as a whole does not reap the maximum benefit from its infrastructure networks. 13
  • 2. Graph 4.2 shows that congestion on Dutch motorways has doubled in the past ten years. It gave rise to costs Congestion on Dutch Motorways of 0.7 bn ECU in 1994 (0.25% of 200 GDP). The US experience of the past 150 ten years hints at developments in Traffic congestion that can be expected to 100 Congestion occur in Europe as, in the next 50 decades, EU car ownership levels are 0 forecast to increase and approach 1986 1994 levels currently prevailing in the US. In 1991, 47.2% of urban interstate Graph 4.2 : Congestion 1986-1994, 1986=100 mileage took place under congested conditions, up from 30.6% in 1983. Even on rural interstates congestion is currently problematic, affecting some 9% of total traffic, having tripled in just eight years (Gramlich 1994). There is only a limited number of estimates available for congestion costs and most of these estimates refer to roads. A recent survey by the OECD (Quinet (1994)) puts road congestion costs in Western industrialised societies at some 2% of GDP. This figure suggests costs of the order of 120 Billion ECU for the EU as a whole. Estimates for other modes arrive at significantly lower numbers. For example, congestion costs in European aviation are put at some 2.4 Billion ECU in a recent study (ECAC (1995)), but this study seems to exclude time losses of passengers. One study for rail suggests that costs in France total some 0.15 billion ECU. If this were representative of Europe, total costs would be around 0.85 billion ECU. For inland waterways congestion costs are negligible as capacity is abundant. No figures are available for maritime transport. The conclusion to be drawn from these studies is that congestion represents a major external cost, which is largely concentrated in road transport. An important characteristic of congestion is that it varies strongly across space and in time. Clearly, this is a function of the spatial organisation of Western societies (80% of the population live in cities) and relatively fixed patterns of work and school over the day and week. Table 4.1 presents results from a recent study for road congestion in the UK which strongly underlines this point. Road congestion is largely concentrated in urban areas. Costs during peak hour are significantly higher than during off-peak. Whilst traffic in rural areas accounts for more than 20% of total traffic, its share in total congestion costs is estimated at less than 1%. 14
  • 3. Table 4.1 : Costs of Congestion in Great Britain, 1993 SHARE IN TOTAL CONGESTION COSTS SHARE IN COST % (pence per car km) TRAFFIC % Motorway 1 0.32 17 Urban central peak 13 44.74 1 Urban central off-peak 27 35.95 3 Non-central peak 17 19.51 4 Non-central off-peak 26 10.75 10 Small town peak 6 8.47 3 Small town off-peak 9 5.17 7 Other urban 0 0.08 14 Rural dual carriageway 0 0.06 12 Other trunk and principal 1 0.23 18 Other rural 0 0.06 12 Weighted average 4.18 Source: Newbery (1995) The conclusion to be drawn is clear: policies to curb congestion must be differentiated in time and space. Across the board increases in charges are unlikely to be effective as they do not allow for the required differentiation. Moreover, they would be unfair. Very strong increases in such charges would penalise rural areas and would still fall short of what is required in heavily congested conurbations. An efficient and equitable solution would thus comprise introducing highly differentiated charges which vary over time and space. These charges should reflect the cost of congestion to all transport users and would give citizens an incentive to base their transport decisions on the full social costs of transport5. This would dissuade those trips of which the total costs are higher than the concomitant benefits and thereby raise welfare by lowering congestion. Pricing is only one element of a comprehensive strategy to curb congestion. Other policies also have an important role to play. For example, the introduction of telematics based traffic guidance, management and information systems can significantly increase the quot;virtualquot; capacity of infrastructure networks. Similarly, the provision of efficient public transportation services, as advocated in the Green Paper on the Citizens' Network, will facilitate the transfer of travellers from private cars to bus and rail. Moreover, teleworking, teleconferencing, and teleshopping can all reduce the need for mobility. Clearly, the different components of a strategy have to dovetail in order to maximise its effects. The full introduction of such a system would necessitate electronic road charging which has significant advantages in terms of flexibility and non-interference with traffic flows (as vehicles would not have to stop at toll stations). Recent systems can fully respect the privacy of motorists by relying on smart-card technologies. Significant progress has already been made in developing such telematic systems and a large variety of trials are carried out in the Union (see Annex 4). The fact that such systems are very close to the market is proven in the case of Singapore which has awarded a $140 million contract for the building of a system due to be phased in as of late 1997. Also, Austria has announced its intention to introduce electronic road pricing systems possibly before the turn of the century. In Germany and the Netherlands the introduction of road pricing is being considered for the period after 2001. 5 It can easily be demonstrated that the charge should be set so as to equal marginal costs which reflect the increase in delay and other costs to all other road users and society of an additional unit of transport. 15
  • 4. 4.4 Congestion charging, efficient infrastructure policies and recovering infrastructure costs It is sometimes argued that the best remedy against congestion is to simply provide more infrastructure. Notwithstanding the need for additional infrastructure in Europe for other reasons, this statement is generally untrue: as motorists are discouraged from using a congested road there is a quot;latentquot; demand which is triggered once extra capacity becomes available. In the long run congestion will persist. This has been demonstrated by numerous studies and real-life examples. Apart from introducing bans - which suffer from a wide variety of disadvantages - the only way to curb congestion in the long run is to set an explicit price for infrastructure capacity. The introduction of congestion charging would also bolster the efficient provision of infrastructure. Efficient infrastructure provision basically entails making decisions on capacity by comparing the benefits from capacity extensions (e.g. time savings) with the costs (construction and maintenance): Optimal infrastructure provision requires infrastructure to be extended to the point where the costs of doing so are no longer outweighed by the benefits. However, in the absence of congestion charging transport speeds will - in the long run - always be too low because of the persistence of congestion and at the same time traffic volumes will be higher than what is desirable. Therefore, in the absence of congestion pricing, it will generally be attractive to build more infrastructure than that which is socially desirable. Congestion pricing could hence lead to important savings in resource costs of infrastructure6. It has been shown that if infrastructure is provided efficiently and capacity is priced through congestion charging, both the amount and the use of infrastructure would be such that it is impossible to accommodate more traffic and higher speeds on the network at costs that are lower than the associated benefits. The joint use of congestion charging and efficient investment rules is thus an essential precondition for arriving at a balanced transport system. Studies for the US have indicated that moving in this direction could lead to annual cost savings of 7.75 billion dollars - or nearly 18% of total 1982 highway expenditure. Congestion charging would also raise significant revenues. These revenues could go a long way to recovering the capital costs of the network and might - if a number of conditions are met - ensure full recovery (Winston (1985)). Such an approach would have several advantages. First, the revenues from such charges would remain within the (road) transport sector and would, therefore, benefit those who pay them. Secondly, these revenues would allow other taxes which are currently used for the public financing of infrastructure but which are largely unrelated to the costs of infrastructure use to be cut. Thirdly, revenues could be used for financing other parts of a comprehensive strategy to deal with congestion (e.g. route guidance systems, public transport etc.). In the long run, congestion charging holds out the prospect of reforming transport taxation in a manner that would greatly increase the efficiency and equity of our transport system. Clearly, this finding is also of major importance to the financial viability of public private investment partnerships (PPPs): the introduction of charging would provide a stable revenue source which could cover large parts of the costs. The Union's objective of furthering PPPs in infrastructure, is an additional reason for introducing road pricing. 6 Moreover, it can be demonstrated that an efficient congestion charge is a helpful guide for making infrastructure decisions. Newbery (1988) shows that if the congestion charge is higher than the costs of building more infrastructure, it is generally attractive to expand the capacity of the network. 16