What is Policy? Decision makers, who are used to depending on their past experiences, must make decisions and take actions in the rapidly changing world we face today. In this turbulent environment, the ability to successfully view the current situation through the traditional "good judgment" viewpoint is weakened through increasing external noise (a multitude of information sources on multiple topics) and changing paradigms of how we think about social, cultural, organizational and economic issues, creating internal noise within our prevailing mental models. These noises skew our perception of what is really happening in the world. In addition to facing this constant flux, leaders are being asked to choose the path to the future as well as to explain exactly how they plan to get there. Before putting a stake in the sand, leaders begin by developing and testing hypotheses about possible scenarios, and then eliminate numerous courses of action until a small set of viable choices remain. Once the decision to act is made, the communication of the new initiatives begins. The results of these initiatives usually produce some expected behavior, but almost always, much to our surprise, our actions produce unexpected behavior as well, that once again changes our situation. And so it goes…

1. Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan
Keputusan dalam Pengembangan Program
Pendidikan Stratejik
(Policy Making and Decision Making in
Expansion of Strategic Education Program)
Presentation for Lecture:
Kepemimpinan dan Politik Pendidikan (AP903)
Lecturer: Prof.Dr.H. Djam’an Satori, MA.
Student: Djadja Sardjana - 0907904
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 1

2. Presentation Outline
Overview of Educational
Policy Making and Decision Making
Consequences and costs of
Policy Making and Decision Making
Policy Making
and Decision Making
in relation to
Strategic Education Program
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 2

3. Presentation Outline
Overview of Educational
Policy Making and Decision Making
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 3

4. Definition of Policy
The statements and frameworks by
Government to direct their agencies
design and delivery of programs
and services to the public.
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan 4
Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903)

5. What is Policy?
“Advice that “Policy Analysis is
relates to public client-oriented
decisions..” which advice relevant to
are also “informed public decisions
by social values.” and informed by
(Weimer and social values.”
Vining, p.23) (Ibid. p.24)
“Policy analysis
Policy analysis is
goes beyond
a social and
personal decision
political activity.
making.”
(Bardach, Intro)
(Bardach, Intro)
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 5

6. Role of policy
Provide guidance Avoid “ad hoc”
and clarification decisions and
under prevailing possible
legislation. inconsistencies.
Place hierarchy of Clear guidelines
legislation into for changed land
context. use - new lands.
New
Technological
Advances.
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 6

7. Policy Involvement
Government
Strategic
Operational
Agency
Functional
Procedural
Adapted from WH Dunn: “Policy Analysis”
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 7

8. From Policy to Implementation
Policy Politic
Process of putting policy
into action –
continuation of policy
process
An allocation system that
translates Stresses (inputs),
reacts to them and produces
decisions (outputs) that
resolve conflicts over values
and resources
Decision
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 8

9. Decision Making Theory
Rational Mixed
Comprehensive Scanning
Model
Model
Incremental Garbage
Model Can Model
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 9

10. The Decision Making Process Map
The following map briefly describes each phase of the decision making process and the difficulties
that decision makers have in that phase. Please read through the storyline and then click on the
"Changing World" to start.
Decision makers, who are used to depending on
their past experiences, must make decisions and
take actions in the rapidly changing world we face
today. In this turbulent environment, the ability to
successfully view the current situation through the
traditional "good judgment" viewpoint is weakened
through increasing external noise (a multitude of
information sources on multiple topics) and
changing paradigms of how we think about social,
cultural, organizational and economic issues,
creating internal noise within our prevailing mental
models. These noises skew our perception of what
is really happening in the world. In addition to
facing this constant flux, leaders are being asked to
choose the path to the future as well as to explain
exactly how they plan to get there. Before putting a
stake in the sand, leaders begin by developing and
testing hypotheses about possible scenarios, and
then eliminate numerous courses of action until a
small set of viable choices remain. Once the
decision to act is made, the communication of the
new initiatives begins. The results of these
initiatives usually produce some expected behavior,
but almost always, much to our surprise, our
actions produce unexpected behavior as well, that
once again changes our situation. And so it goes…
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan 10
Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903)

11. Presentation Outline
Consequences and costs of
Policy Making and Decision Making
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 11

12. The Process of Policy-Making
Policy-
A policy must be well-planned, implemented
well-
and evaluated effectively so that the target
group would receive the expected benefits
benefits.
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 12

13. Hence, a policy should have the
following characteristics:
• Strategic; able to contribute to the
achievement of long-term goals.
long-
• The objective of the policy must
be clear. Must identify, the
‘change’ that will be established
through the policy.
• Fair to all parties.
• Flexible and innovative
• Strong. The policy could be
implemented from A to Z.
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 13

14. 5 Stages (Dunn, 1994; Cochran et al,
1995; Dye, 1998).
1. Problem identification
2. Goal and alternatives identification
3. Selection of policy instruments
4. Implementation of the policy
5. Evaluation of the policy
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 14

15. Liabilities of Group
Decision Making
• Groups often work more slowly than
individuals.
• Groups decisions involve considerable
compromise that may lead to less than
optimal decisions.
• Groups are often dominated by one
individual or a small clique, thereby
negating many of the virtues of group
processes.
• Overreliance on group decision making
can inhibit management’s ability to act
quicklyKebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) necessary.
Pembuatan
and decisively when
25-Mar-12 15

16. 3 Initial Big Ideas
• Myth of meritocracy vs. Reality of
Inequality
• Excellence and/or Equity
• Social Capital and Limits of
Schooling
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 16

17. Areas of Interest
• Intersection of Policy, Research, and
Practice
• Intention Output Outcome
• Evidence – Incentives – Intuition
• Systems – Organizations – Individuals
• Culture: Internal & External
• Limits of Policy
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 17

18. Politics
• An allocation system that
translates Stresses (inputs),
reacts to them and produces
decisions (outputs) that resolve
conflicts over values and
resources
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 18

19. ISSUE ATTENTION
CYCLE
1. Problem Builds
2. Alarming Incident
3. Support for change
4. Change Proposals Emerge
5. Interest Wanes
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 19

20. Presentation Outline
Policy Making
and Decision Making
in relation to
Strategic Education Program
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 20

21. Where is Public Education Going?
“Education, then beyond all other
devices of human origin, is the great
equalizer of the condition of man - the
balance wheel of the social machinery.”
Horace Mann ~ 1848 Speech about Education and National Welfare
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan 21
Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903)

22. No Child Left Behind
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan 22
Courtesy of USA.Ed.gov
Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903)

23. Education Policy
Strategic Questions
• Who is the • What is the
“public” in mission of
public public
education? education?
1 2
4 3
• What is the • Who does
product? public
education
serve?
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 23

24. Strategic Government
Education Agency
OLD ROLES
• Operational
• Regulatory
• Services
• Developmental (improvement of service)
• Public Support
NEW ROLES
• Standard Setting
• Assessment
• Accountability
• Technical Assistance
• Capacity Building
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 24

25. Strategic Questions:
Which factors influence the education
outcomes of students?
• Enrolment rate (general)
• Enrolment rate by programme
Access
• Distribution of students across Individual
schools factors
• Participation rate; Drop-out rate School level
Participation
• Grade repetition rate Factors
• Achievement Scores at different System level
Performance levels of education factors
• Transition rates
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 25

26. Which strategic policies can influence these
factors to improve the education?
Access System level
factors
School level POLICIES
Participation factors
Individual
Factors
Performance
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 26

27. System level factors
Access Participation Performance
• school catchment • second chance schools • external student
• school choice or recognition system of assessment
• school fees (regionally/ experiential learning • school / teacher
(nationally determined) • grade repetition policy evaluation
• long schooling time (curricular/extra-curricular)
• national curriculum or teaching guidelines responsive
to linguistic and cultural diversity
• tracking system
• preschool education and care system
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 27

28. School level factors
Access Participation Performance
School School Community
• placement assessment • induction/integration program • ethnic residence
• school admission • language support • share responsibility in
• recommendation • peers (discrimination) creating better
to schools • teachers (expectation, communication
Community pedagogy, stereotypes, etc) channels b/w school,
• support for academic • curriculum adaptation of parents & community
guidance cultural & linguistic diversity
School Community
• ability grouping • area of residence
• concentration of immigrants at school
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 28

29. Individual factors
Access Participation Performance
Student Student Family Parents
• immigrant status • age • generation • expectation for
• age of arrival • learning children
• gender at home
Student Family Parents
• language competencies • family structure • occupation status
• length of stay • family size/siblings • education level
• country of origin • aspiration for child’s
• academic performance education
• aspirations
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 29

30. What works in education policy?
Literature Review
System level policies: shaping the structure and inputs of education systems
Reduce • School choice
segregation • Tracking / ability grouping
Provide quality • Provide funding for migrant education
resources • Ensure quality teachers for migrant education
• Determine target groups
Set priorities • Ensure efficient management and monitoring
• Prioritise between levels of education
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan 30
Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903)

31. What works in education policy?
Literature Review
School level policies: shaping schools, classrooms and school-home
relationships
Language • Early starting, time-intensive, continuous
• High standards, clear curricula
learning • Quality language teachers
• Diversity in curricula and textbooks
Intercultural • Teacher training
education • School goals, culture, leadership
Parental • Bringing education into homes
involvement • Schools reaching out to parents
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan 31
Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903)

32. 2008 2009
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
Process Phase I: Phase II: Phase IV:
Fact-Finding visit
Pre-Visit Post-Visit
Phase III:
Policy review visit
Outputs
Country Notes
Draft policy evaluation framework Final
Report
Proposed decision-making tools
Knowledge- Mapping of existing policy options
Formulating policy relevant
base questions
Facts
Building
Developing analytical framework
Factors
Literature Review of existing research
Stock-taking
Work done by other Directorates of
Collecting evidence of good practices
the OECD; other organisations;
and policy challenges from countries
research communities
Fact-finding Facts and
mission empirical
Country background Reports questions
1 2 4
3 5 6 7
Policy review Hypotheses about possible
mission causes and explanations, and
possible remedies
1 2 4
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan 6
3 5 7
(AP903) 32
Adjusted from Figure 1 in EDU/EDPC/MI(2008)3/REV1

33. Back-up Presentation
Policy Making
and Decision Making
in relation to
Strategic Education Program
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 33

34. Stage 1: Problem Identification
• The problem becomes the agenda of the
political/organizational institution.
• At this point, the decision-makers will
decision-
decide whether or not actions will be
taken to address the problem.
• Justifications will be made whether or not
the problem is worth to be made into an
agenda.
• Only issue/problem which is worth for
institutional/governmental interventions=
policy agenda
agenda.

35. Stage 2: Goal and Alternatives
Identification
• At this point, the objective of the policy
will be identified (what is to be achieved
out of the policy).
• Once the objective is clear, policy
alternatives be identified and then
selected.

36. Step 3: Establishment of Policy
Instruments
• At this point, establishment of policy
instruments will take place after
agreement is reached upon several
alternatives/possible solutions.

37. Stage 4: Policy
Implementation
• At this point, the implementation of
the policy would involve the transfer
of policy interpretation to policy
instruments.

38. Stage 5: Policy Evaluation
• At this final stage, the policy would
be evaluated to see its effectiveness
as well as its impacts.

39. Normative Decision Making
Model
• Basis: Decision making is not
rational; it is rather intuitive.
• Characteristics of decision making:
Limited Information Use of rules of thumbs
Processing or shortcuts
Satisficing
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 39

40. ICT for Decision Making
• E-democracy research has so far focused
on early stages of political decision making:
How to include citizens in the process.
• Our focus was to look at how ICT can be
used to evaluate policy decisions (later
stages)
• Also to discuss what impact ICT has on the
political decision making process itself.
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 40

41. Redefined decision making
model
• ICT provides for faster and even
continuous evaluation of the results
of decisions.
• This opens up for a reformulation of
the model presented earlier:
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 41

42. Goals and focus points
Information on time for decision making,
then better decisions at national, local
and school level,
then higher effectiveness of
education system,
and better learning achievements
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 42

43. Assumptions in Rational Decision-
Making Model
• This process assumes that you have or can
obtain adequate information, both in terms of
accuracy, quality, and quantity, about the
situation and the alternative technical
innovations.
innovations
• it assumes that you have knowledge of all of
the alternatives and all of the consequences of
the alternatives.
• it assumes that you can somehow rank-order
rank-
the alternatives or generate satisfactory
decision-
decision-rules or criteria for choice.
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 43

44. Limitations of the rational decision-
decision-
making model:
• It requires a great deal of time.
• It requires a great deal of information.
• It assumes rational, measurable criteria are
available and agreed upon.
• It assumes accurate, stable, and complete
knowledge of alternatives, preferences, goals,
and consequences.
• It assumes a rational, reasonable, non-political
non-
world.
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 44

45. Bonus Points in Group Decision
Making
• Groups can accumulate more knowledge and facts.
• Groups have a broader perspective and consider more
alternative solutions.
• Individuals who participate in decisions are more satisfied
with the decision and are more likely to support it.
• Group decision making processes serve an important
amount of knowledge available to groups.
• In identifying alternatives, the individual efforts of group
alternatives,
members encourage a broad search in various functional
areas of the organization.
• In evaluating alternatives, the collective judgement of the
alternatives,
group, with its wider range of viewpoints, seems superior
to that of the individual decision maker.
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 45

46. What works in education policy?
Literature Review
System level policies: shaping the structure and inputs of education systems
Reduce • School choice
segregation • Tracking / ability grouping
Provide quality • Provide funding for migrant education
resources • Ensure quality teachers for migrant education
• Determine target groups
Set priorities • Ensure efficient management and monitoring
• Prioritise between levels of education
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan 46
Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903)

47. What works in education policy?
Literature Review
School level policies: shaping schools, classrooms and school-home
relationships
Language • Early starting, time-intensive, continuous
• High standards, clear curricula
learning • Quality language teachers
• Diversity in curricula and textbooks
Intercultural • Teacher training
education • School goals, culture, leadership
Parental • Bringing education into homes
involvement • Schools reaching out to parents
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan 47
Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903)

48. Existing policy options from a mapping exercise
What policy alternatives and options are available to countries to address the
major policy challenges based on country experience and research findings?
Our Project
•CBR
•Literature Review
•Statistical findings
Access Individual •Country visits
factors Policy options
EDU’s
and
alternatives other reviews
School level
Participation
factors DELSA/ ECO
System level Provisional European
Performance Factors areas Commission
Council of
Europe
Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903)
25-Mar-12 Etc. Etc. 48

49. Policy alternatives and options that may influence
individual factors.
Language matters.
1. Provide systematic language support for both children and their parents by…..
SES matters.
2. Effectively mitigate the negative impact of low SES by…..
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 49

50. Policy alternatives and options that may influence school
level factors.
First school experience matters.
3. Provide an effective induction/integration programme into school and into
society at large by…..
Schools matter.
4. Make school culture more responsive to linguistic and cultural diversity by…..
Teachers matter.
5. Make the teaching workforce responsive to linguistic and cultural diversity by…..
Segregation in school may have negative effects.
6. Effectively mitigate the negative impact of segregation and/or self-segregation
by…..
Family and community involvement matter.
7. Ensure family and community involvement by…..
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 50

51. Policy alternatives and options that may influence system level factors.
Funding strategies matters.
8. Design effective funding strategies and provide extra resources most efficiently by…..
Overall school systems matters.
9. Make education systems comprehensive, fair and flexible by…..
Participation in ECEC matters.
10. Provide effective and quality early childhood education and care by…..
Research matters.
11. Encourage goal-setting, data collection, monitoring and evaluation of education
outcomes of immigrant students by…..
25-Mar-12 Pembuatan Kebijakan dan Pengambilan Keputusan (AP903) 51