1. Pelvic Inflammatory
Disease
(PID)
Prof . M.C. Bansal.
MBBS.Ms. MICOG .FICOG.
Founder Principal & Controller;
Jhalawar Medical College And Hospital
Jhalawar.
Ex. Principal & Controller;
Mahatma Gandhi Medical College And
Hospital,
Sitapura, Jaipur.
Dr. Monika Gupta
DNB PG1 Obstetrics & gynaecology

2. PID : Definition
 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) comprises a
spectrum of inflammatory disorders of the upper female
genital tract, including any combination of endometritis,
salpingitis, tubo-ovarian abscess, and pelvic peritonitis
 Sexually transmitted organisms, especially N.
gonorrhoea and C. trachomatis, are implicated in many
cases
 However, microorganisms that comprise the vaginal
flora (e.g., anaerobes, G. virginals, Haemophilus
influenzae, enteric Gram-negative rods, and
Streptococcus agalactiae) also have been associated
with PID
 In addition, M. [Mycoplasma] hominis and U.
[Ureaplasma] urealyticum might be etiological agents of
PID
Center for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC)
Treatment Guidelines 2010

3. PID : Definition
 Pelvic inflammatory disease is an inflammatory process
of infectious etiology which shares a common
epidemiological profile, which specifically involves at the
least the uterine and/or fallopian tube sites, and which
may result in relatively comparable long term sequelae
 Disease due to bacteria not meeting these requirements
will be termed upper female genital tract infection
(UFGTI or UGTI) and the designation of specific etiology
cited with it
 In the future, I-IDSOG-USA will replace definition for PID
with the term “upper female genital tract infection,”
followed by the name of the etiological agent, followed
by the stage of disease

4. PID : Epidemiology
 PID is commonly associated with Sexually Transmitted
Diseases (STDs)
 Incidence is on rise due to rise in STDs
 Among sexually active women: Incidence is 1-2 % per
year
 About 85% are spontaneous infection in sexually active
females of reproductive age
 Remaining 15% follow procedures, which favors the
organism to ascend up
85%
15%
Causes of PID
STDs
Iatrogenic

5. PID : Epidemiology
Iatrogenic procedures: favor organism to ascend
1. Endometrial biopsy
2. Uterine curettage
3. Insertion of IUD
4. Hysterosalpingography
66%
34%
Distribution among age groups
<25 years
>25 years

6. PID : Epidemiology
 Many Indian women suffer from PID
Changes in epidemiology of PID
1. Shift from in-patient PID to out-patient PID
2. Changes in clinical presentation (less severe: more
common)
3. Shift in the microbial etiology of more Chlamydia
trachomatis than gonococcus and others
60%
36%
4%
Clinical presentation
Subclinical/Asymptomat
ic
Mild to moderate
Severe
Overt
40%

7. PID : Epidemiology
Risk factors
ACCEPTED PROPOSED
1. Menstruating teens 1. Low socio-economic status
2. Multiple sex partners 2. Early age of sexual activity
3. Prior H/O PID 3. Urban living
4. Sexually Transmitted Infection 4. High frequency of coitus
5. Non-use of barrier
contraceptive
5. Use of IUCD
6. Cigarette smoking
7. Substance abuse
8. Douching

8. PID : Epidemiology
Protective
1. Barrier methods: Specially condom with spermicidal
chemicals (Nonoxynol-9 which is bactericidal &
virucidal)
2. Oral steroidal contraceptives:
-Thick mucus plug (preventing ascend of
sperm and bacterial penetration)
-Decrease in duration of menstruation
(Short interval of bacterial colonization of the
upper tract)
3. Women with monogamous partner with vasectomy
4. Pregnancy
5. Menopause
6. Uncommon in women who are not menstruating
7. Husband who is azoospermic

9. PID : Microbiology
 Acute PID: Usually polymicrobial
Primary organisms
 Sexually transmitted
Secondary organisms
 Normally found in vagina
Aerobic: Non-hemolytic streptococcus, E. coli,
Group-B streptococcus & staphylococcus
Anaerobic: Bacteroides species- fragilis & bivius,
Peptostrepococcus & peptococcus
30%
30%
10%
30%
Primary organisms
N. gonorrhoeae
Chlamydia trachomatis
Mycoplasma hominis
Others

10. PID : Mode of transmission
Ascending infection (Canalicular spread)
 Ascend of gonococcal & chlamydial organisms by
surface extension from the lower genital tract through
the cervical canal by way of the endometrium to the
fallopian tubes
 Facilitated by the sexually transmitted vectors such as
sperms & trichomonads
 Reflux of menstrual blood along with gonococci into the
fallopian tubes may be the other possibility

11. PID : Mode of transmission
Through uterine lymphatic & blood vessels across
parametrium
 Mycoplasma hominis
 Secondary organisms

12. PID : Mode of transmission
Gynecological procedures favoring ascend of infection
 E.g. D&C, D&E
Blood-borne transmission
 Pelvic tuberculosis
Direct spread from contaminated structures in abdominal
cavity
 E.g. Appendicitis, cholecystitis

13. Acute PID : Pathology
Cervicitis
Endometritis
Salpingitis
Oophoritis
Tubo-ovarian abscess
Peritonitis

14. Acute PID : Pathology
 Involvement of the fallopian tubes is almost bilateral
 Pathological process is initiated primarily in the
endosalpinx
 It usually follows menses due to loss of genital defence
 Gross destruction of epithelial cells, cilia & microvilli
 Acute inflammatory reaction: all layers are involved
 Tubes become edematous & hyperemic; exfoliated cells
& exudate pour into lumen & agglutinate the mucosal
folds
 Abdominal ostium: closed by edema & inflammation
Uterine end: closed by congestion

15. Acute PID : Pathology
 Depending on the virulence: watery or purulent exudate
 Hydrosalpinx or Pyosalpinx
 Deeper penetration & more destruction
 Possibilities
Oophoritis
Tubo-ovarian abscess
Peritonitis
Pelvic abscess
or
Resolution in 2-3 weeks with/without chronic
sequelae

16. Acute PID : Presentation &
Diagnosis Diagnosis of Acute PID is difficult because of wide
variation & non-specific nature of symptoms & signs
 Many women with PID have subtle or mild symptoms
 A diagnosis of PID usually is based on clinical findings
 Delay in diagnosis and treatment probably contributes to
inflammatory sequelae in the upper reproductive tract
60%
36%
4%
Clinical presentation
Subclinical/Asymptomat
ic
Mild to moderate
Severe

17. Acute PID : Presentation &
DiagnosisHistory
 The patient should be asked about the
location, intensity, radiation, timing, duration, and
exacerbating and mitigating factors of the pelvic pain:
Bilateral lower abdominal & pelvic dull aching pain is
characteristic of acute PID
 H/O Fever (Oral temperature > 38.3˚C/101F)
 H/O Abnormal vaginal discharge
 H/O symptoms suggestive of dysuria
 Previous H/O abdominal or gynecological surgeries
 H/O previous gynecological problem
 H/O IUD insertion (6 times higher risk within 20 days)
 Social history: Should include patient’s sexual and
STDs history & partner’s history in terms of STDs

18. Acute PID : Presentation &
DiagnosisFitz Hugh & Curtis Syndrome
 Consists of rt. upper quadrant pain resulting from
ascending pelvic infection and inflammation of the liver
capsule or diaphragm
 Although it is typically associated with acute
salpingitis, it can exist without signs of acute pelvic
inflammatory disease (PID)
Physical examination
 Abdominal & pelvic examination is most important
 Bilateral abdominal tenderness
 Adnexal mass & adnexal tenderness
 Cervical motion tenderness
 Uterine tenderness
 Vaginal mucopurulent discharge

19. Acute PID : Presentation &
DiagnosisInvestigations
 Complete blood count
 C – reactive protein
 Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
 Urine Pregnancy Test (UPT), urinalysis
 Urine culture
 Urine NAATs
 Vaginal wet mount
1. WBCs suggest PID
2. Cervical chlamydia and gonorrhea testing
3. Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) for organisms
 Faecal occult blood test
 Tests for tuberculosis
 Tests for syphilis
 Tests for HIV

20. Acute PID : Presentation &
Diagnosis
Imaging
 Transvaginal ultrasonography is the imaging modality of
choice
 Trans abdominal ultrasonography for DD
 Abdominal CT or MRI : When USG indeterminate
Diagnostic procedures
 Culdocentesis
 Endometrial biopsy
 Diagnostic laparoscopy

21. Acute PID : Most common DD
Most common DD of acute PID
1. Appendicitis
2. Ectopic pregnancy
3. Endometritis
4. Ovarian cyst
5. Ovarian torsion

22. Acute PID : diagnostic approach
History, physical
examination, & pregnancy test
Right lower quadrant
abdominal pain or pain
migration from periumbilical
area to right lower quadrant of
abdomen?
Cervical motion, uterine, or
adnexal tenderness?
Evaluate for ectopic pregnancy with
quantitative beta-subunit of HCG test
and transvaginal USG
Consider surgical consultation and
laparotomy for appendicitis; if
diagnosis in doubt, consider USG or
abdominal and pelvic CT with
intravenous contrast media
Consider PID; obtain transvaginal USG
to evaluate for tubo-ovarian abscess
Pregnancy
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No

23. Acute PID : diagnostic approach
Pelvic mass on examination?
Dysuria and white blood cells
on urinalysis?
Consider ovarian cyst, ovarian
torsion, degenerating uterine
fibroid, or endometriosis; obtain
transvaginal USG
Evaluate for urinary tract infection or
pyelonephritis; obtain urine culture
Yes
Yes
No
No
Transvaginal USG to
evaluate for other
diagnosis

24. Acute PID : Differential Diagnosis

25. Acute PID : Differential Diagnosis

26. Acute PID : CDC Diagnosis Criteria
3
5
3

27. Acute PID : Staging
(I-IDSOG-USA recommends following stages)
Stage I
 Women who fulfil the CDC major diagnostic criteria and
>1 of its minor criteria but who do not have overt
peritonitis (as demonstrated by the absence of rebound
tenderness) and who have not had any prior
documented STD upper tract infections
Stage II
 The above criteria, with peritonitis
Stage III
 Women with demonstrable tubo-ovarian complex or
tubo-ovarian abscess evident on either physical or
ultrasonographic examination
Stage IV
 Women with ruptured tubo-ovarian abscesses

28. Acute PID : Management
Therapeutic considerations
 Because of the difficulty of diagnosis and the potential
for damage to the reproductive health of women (even
with mild infection) health-care providers should
maintain a low threshold for the diagnosis of PID
 PID treatment regimens must provide empiric, broad
spectrum coverage of likely pathogens
 All regimens should also be effective against N.
gonorrhoeae & C. trachomatis
 Anaerobic bacteria are also involved in PID – treatment
regimens should also cover these
 In-patient Vs. out-patient treatment
 Oral Vs. parenteral management
 Associated management & prevention of recurrence

29. Acute PID : Hospital admission
(CDC-2010 Criteria)
2. Patient meeting following criteria
a. Surgical emergencies (e.g., appendicitis) cannot be
excluded
b. Pt. is pregnant
c. Pt. does not respond clinically to oral antimicrobial
therapy
d. Pt. is unable to follow or tolerate an outpatient oral
regimen
e. Pt. has severe illness, nausea and vomiting, or high
fever
f. Pt. has a tubo-ovarian abscess
1. Judgment of the provider

30. Acute PID : Management
(Antibiotics for specific pathogen)
Organism Antibiotics
N. gonorrhea Cephalosporins, Quinolones
Chlamydia
Doxycycline, Erythromycin &
Quinolones (Not to
cephalosporins)
Anaerobic organisms
Flagyl, Clindamycin &
in some cases to Doxycycline
ß-Haemolytic
streptococci.
&
E. coli
Penicillin derivatives,
Tetracyclines, and
Cephalosporins.,
E. Coli is most often treated with

31. Management : Parenteral
 Because of the pain associated with intravenous infusion, doxycycline
should be administered orally when possible
 Oral and IV administration of doxycycline provide similar bioavailability
 Parenteral therapy can be discontinued 24 hours after clinical
improvement, but oral therapy with doxycycline (100 mg twice a day)
should continue to complete 14 days of therapy
 When tubo-ovarian abscess is present, clindamycin or metronidazole
with doxycycline can be used for continued therapy rather than
doxycycline alone because this regimen provides more effective
anaerobic coverage
CDC-2010 Regimen A
Cefotetan 2 g IV every 12 hours
or
Cefoxitin 2 g IV every 6 hours
PLUS
Doxycycline 100 mg orally or IV every 12 hours

32. Management : Parenteral
 Parenteral therapy can be discontinued 24 hours after clinical
improvement
 On-going oral therapy should consist of doxycycline 100 mg orally
twice a day, or clindamycin 450 mg orally four times a day to
complete a total of 14 days of therapy
 When tubo-ovarian abscess is present, clindamycin should be
continued rather than doxycycline, because clindamycin provides
more effective anaerobic coverage
CDC-2010 Regimen B
Clindamycin 900 mg IV every 8 hours
PLUS
Gentamicin loading dose IV or IM (2 mg/kg of body
weight), followed by a maintenance dose (1.5 mg/kg)
every 8 hours
 Single daily dosing (3–5 mg/kg) can be substituted

33. Management : Parenteral
 Ampicillin/sulbactam plus doxycycline is effective against C.
trachomatis, N. gonorrhoeae, and anaerobes in women with tubo-
ovarian abscess
 One trial demonstrated high short-term clinical cure rates with
azithromycin, either as monotherapy for 1 week (500 mg IV for 1 or
2 doses followed by 250 mg orally for 5–6 days) or combined with a
12-day course of metronidazole
CDC-2010 Alternate Regimens
Ampicillin/Sulbactam 3 g IV every 6 hours
PLUS
Doxycycline 100 mg orally or IV every 12 hours

34. Management : Oral
CDC-2010 Oral Regimen A
Ceftriaxone 250 mg IM in a single dose
PLUS
Doxycycline 100 mg orally twice a day for 14 days
With or without
Metronidazole 500 mg orally twice a day for 14 days
CDC-2010 Oral Regimen B
Cefoxitin 2 g IM in a single dose and Probenecid 1 g
orally administered concurrently in a single dose
PLUS
Doxycycline 100 mg orally twice a day for 14 days
With or without
Metronidazole 500 mg orally twice a day for 14 days

35. Management : Oral
 The optimal choice of a cephalosporin is unclear; although cefoxitin
has better anaerobic coverage, ceftriaxone has better coverage
against N. gonorrhoea
 The theoretical limitations in coverage of anaerobes by
recommended cephalosporin antimicrobials might require the
addition of metronidazole to the treatment regimen
 Adding metronidazole also will effectively treat BV, which is
frequently associated with PID
CDC-2010 Oral Regimen C
Other parenteral third-generation cephalosporin (e.g.,
ceftizoxime or cefotaxime)
PLUS
Doxycycline 100 mg orally twice a day for 14 days
With or without
Metronidazole 500 mg orally twice a day for 14 days

36. Management : Alternate oral
regimen Because of emergence of quinolone-resistant Neisseria
gonorrhoea, regimens that include a quinolone agent
are no longer recommended
 If parenteral cephalosporin therapy is not feasible, use
of fluoroquinolones (levofloxacin 500 mg orally once
daily or ofloxacin 400 mg twice daily for 14 days) with or
without metronidazole (500 mg orally twice daily for 14
days) can be considered if community prevalence &
individual risk for gonorrhoea are low
 Diagnostic tests for gonorrhoea must be performed
before therapy & the patient managed as follows if test is
positive
 If the culture for gonorrhoea is positive, treatment should be based on
results of antimicrobial susceptibility
 If isolate is quinolone-resistant N. gonorrhoeae (QRNG) or if antimicrobial
susceptibility cannot be assessed, parenteral cephalosporin is
recommended.
However
 If cephalosporin therapy is not feasible, the addition of azithromycin 2 g
orally as a single dose to a quinolone-based PID regimen is recommended

37.  CDC no longer recommends cefixime at any dose as a
first-line regimen for treatment of gonococcal infections
 If cefixime is used as an alternative agent, then the
patient should return in 1 week for a test-of-cure at the
site of infection

38. Management & Follow-up
Out-patient
Oral regimen
In-patient
Parenteral regimen
3 Days (72 hours)
Substantial clinical improvement ????
 Defervescence
 Reduction in direct or rebound abdominal tenderness
 Reduction in uterine, adnexal & cervical motion
tenderness
NO
 Reassessment of patient & treatment
 Additional diagnostic testing
After 6 - months
Repeat testing of all women who have been diagnosed with chlamydia or
gonorrhoea
Yes
 Switch to oral from parenteral after
24 hours of clinical improvement
 If on oral – continue the same
Admit Out-patient

39. Management : Surgery in Acute
PIDIndications
1. Ruptured abscess
2. Failed response to medical treatment
3. Uncertain diagnosis
Type of surgeries
1. Colpotomy
2. Percutaneous drainage/aspiration
3. Exploratory laparotomy
Extend of surgeries
1. Conservation - if fertility desired
2. U/L or B/L Sal.-oophorectomy with/without
hysterectomy
3. Drainage of abscess at laparotomy

40. Management : Surgery in PID
(Main complications in Stage IV PID : Ruptured abscess)
During operation
1. Septic shock
2. Injury to small bowel
3. Injury to rectum
Post-operative
1. Pus collected again
2. Chest empyema
3. Septicemia
4. Septic shock
5.. Recto-vaginal fistula
6. Wound abscess or infection
7. Pneumonia
8. Renal failure
9. Liver failure

41. Management : Associated
treatment
 Rest: at home or hospital
 Abstinence from sex: till complete cure is achieved
 Anti-inflammatory treatment
 Estro-progestronics:
- Contraceptive effect
- Protection of ovaries against inflammatory reaction
- Cervical mucus induced by OP have preventive
effect against re-infection

42. PID : Management of Partner
 Male sex partners of women with PID should be examined
and treated if they had sexual contact with the patient during
the 60 days preceding the patient’s onset of symptoms
 If a patient’s last sexual intercourse was >60 days before
onset of symptoms or diagnosis, the patient’s most recent sex
partner should be treated
 Evaluation and treatment are imperative because of the risk
for reinfection of the patient and the strong likelihood of
urethral gonococcal or chlamydial infection in the sex partner
 Male partners of women who have PID caused by C.
trachomatis and/or N. gonorrhoea frequently asymptomatic
 Sex partners should be treated empirically with regimens
effective against both of these infections, regardless of the
etiology of PID or pathogens isolated from the infected
woman

43. PID : Special situation
Pregnancy
Considerations
 Maternal morbidity
 Pre-term delivery
Management
 Hospitalization & In-patient management
 Parenteral treatment
HIV infected patient
Considerations
 No difference in presentation but more likely to have tubo-ovarian
abscess
 The microbiologic findings were similar, except HIV-infected women
had higher rates of concomitant M. hominis, candida, streptococcal &
HPV infections and HPV-related cytologic abnormalities
Management of immunodeficient HIV-infected women
requires more aggressive interventions has not been

44. PID : Special situation
IUD users
Considerations
 The risk for PID associated with IUD use is primarily confined to
the first 3 weeks after insertion and is uncommon thereafter
 Practitioners might encounter PID in IUD users because it’s a
popular method of contraception
Management
 Evidence is insufficient to recommend the removal of IUDs
However
 Caution should be exercised if the IUD remains in place, and
close clinical follow-up is mandatory. If improvement is not seen
within 72 hrs of starting treatment then removal of IUCD is
considered
 No data have been collected regarding treatment outcomes by
type of IUD (e.g., copper or levonorgestrel)

45. PID : Special situation
Post-menopausal women
Considerations
 Rare in these patients
 Extragenital pathology in addition to genital tract malignancies
must be considered in these patients
 Most commonly due to iatrogenic causes
 Not typically associated with organisms causing STDs
 Organisms most commonly encountered are E. coli & Klebsiella
 Anaerobic organisms are commonly found
 Tubo-ovarian abscess is common
Management
 In-patient & parenteral management
 Surgical exploration should be considered if patient is not
improving within 48 hours
 Management should be aggressive to prevent morbidity &
mortality

46. PID : Chronic complications &
sequelae

47. PID : Chronic complications &
sequelae
Complications
1. Dyspareunia
2. Infertility : due to tubal factor
 12 % after single episode
 25 % after two episodes
 50 % after three episodes
3. Increased risk of ectopic pregnancy
 6-10 % increase in risk following H/O PID
4. Formation of adhesion or hydrosalpinx or pyosalpinx &
tubo -ovarian abscess
5. Chronic pelvic inflammation
 Due to recurrent or associated pyogenic infection/ T.B.
6. Chronic pelvic pain and ill health

48. Chronic Pelvic Infection
Occurs due to
 Following acute pelvic infection
 Following low grade infection
 Tubercular infection
Pyogenic : Pathogenesis
 Both openings of tube are blocked with damage to
structures
 This can result in hydro or pyosalpinx
 Recurrent peritoneal surface infection can result in either
flimsy (gonococcal) or dense (non-gonococcal)
adhesions with surrounding structures
 Resulting fibrosis affects surrounding structures & may
result in frozen pelvis
Pyogenic infection

49. Chronic Pelvic Infection
Symptoms
 Chronic pelvic pain
 Dyspareunia
 Congestive dysmenorrhea
 Lower abdominal pain
 Menorrhagia
 Vaginal discharge
 Infertility
Signs
 Tenderness on one or both iliac fossa
 An irregular tender pelvic mass
 PV findings similar to CDC criteria for Acute PID
 PR - Involvement of parametrium & uterosacral ligament

50. Chronic Pelvic Infection
Investigations, imaging & diagnostic procedures
 Similar to Acute PID
Management
Antibiotics
 Broad spectrum for 3 weeks/ based on C/S
 In proved gonococcal infection as CDC guidelines-
parenteral
Surgery
Indications
 Persistence of symptoms despite conservative
management
 Recurrence of acute attack
 Increase in size of pelvic mass despite treatment
 Persistent menorrhagia & deterioration in general health
 Infertility

51. Chronic Pelvic Infection
Surgery
Nature of surgery
 Ideal: Hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-
oophorectomy in patients who have completed their
family
 Pt. who desires to have family
- Salpingolysis
- Salpingostomy
- Tubal anastomosis

52. PID : Chronic Pelvic Pain
Definition of CPP
 Chronic pelvic pain is noncyclic pain that lasts six
months or more; is localized to the pelvis, the anterior
abdominal wall at or below the umbilicus, or the
buttocks; and is of sufficient severity to cause functional
disability or require medical care
Pathophysiology of CPP
 Not well understood
 Definitive diagnosis is not made for 61% of women with
chronic pelvic pain
 The four most commonly diagnosed etiologies are
- Endometriosis
- Adhesions
- Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
- Interstitial cystitis

53. Chronic Pelvic Infection : DD

54. PID : Chronic Pelvic Pain
History
 A history of previous sexually transmitted infection
 Dyspareunia,
 Menstrual irregularity
 Backache
 Rectal pressure
 Pelvic pain with fever
 PID should also be considered as a possible cause of
CPP in women with a history of any other late sequelae
of PID
- Infertility
- Ectopic pregnancy
- Pain with stretching, movements or organ
distension
(Peritoneal adhesions)

55. PID : Chronic Pelvic Pain
Examination
 Mucopurulent cervical discharge on pelvic examination
Investigations
 Positive gonorrhea or chlamydia testing
Treatment
 Appropriate antibiotics are recommended if PID is
suspected,
however
 Because the pain of CPP tends to wax and wane over
time, the resolution of pain following this does not
necessarily prove that PID was the cause of the CPP

56. PID : Prevention
Primary prevention
1. Sexual counseling
 Practice safe sex
 Limit number of sexual partners
 Avoid contact with high risk partners
 Delay in sexual activity until 16 years of age
2. Barrier methods & oral contraceptives reduce the risk
Secondary prevention
1. Screening for infections in high risk population
2. Rapid diagnosis & effective treatment of STDs & UTI
Tertiary prevention
1. Early intervention & complete treatment

57. Key Points
 PID is mainly caused by N.gonorrhoeaand
chlamydia trachomatis follwed by Gardenerella
Vaginalis,Streptococci,Stephylococci,E,coli,
mycoplasma and anaerobic organisms like
bacteroides clostridia or peptostreptococcus.
 Acute or chronic PID cases are to be diagnosed
and treated promptly and completely to minimize
complications and late sequeles.
 Triad of lower abdominal pain ,adnexal tenderness
and tender cervical movements are considered to
be the most important clinical features ofAcute PID.
 Rx is according to the guide lines by the centers for
disease control. Partner should be treated
simultaneously.

58. Key Points---
 Surgical Intervention is needed when there is
pelvic abscessor TO ovarian mass, adhesions---
intestinal obstruction / general peritonitis.
 Chronic PID presents as chronic abdominal pain
congestive dysmenorrhoea ,deep
dyspareunia,menstrual abnormalities and infertility.
 Physical examination reveals adnexal
tenderness,massor frozen pelvis. Management is
by laparoscopy / laparotomy .Adhesiolysis or
salpingo-oopherectomy may be required , rarely
hysterectomy may be needed.