The document discusses soil usage by Japanese immigrants and their descendants before and during the Japanese American internment camps of World War II. It notes that many Japanese immigrants had success as farmers in California in the early 1900s, cultivating lands that white farmers did not want. However, they faced discrimination and the 1913 California Alien Land Law, which hindered their ability to own land. After the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, over 120,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated to internment camps. The camps were often located on marginal desert lands with alkaline and saline soils. Despite this, Japanese internees established agricultural programs to cultivate the difficult soils, drawing on their agricultural experience and skills. The document examines in depth the soil conditions at

1. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
The Examination of Soils Used by Japanese Issei and Adolescent Nisei During and
Before the Japanese American Concentration Camps
―One evacuee wrote, ―My next door neighbor is a soil chemist that leaves every
morning looking for less alkali and finding more‖ (Lillquist, 83). The soil in the Japanese
American Concentration Camps was alkaline and saline due to the location of each camp
in desolate, barren, and arid climaticregions.
Anti-Japanese sentiment began in the early 1900‘s on the West Coast with an
influx of Japanese immigrants to the coast. Discrimination against Japanese prevailed
throughout the 1900‘s as American white farmers saw Japanese agricultural success as a
threat. Two months after Pearl Harbor President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive
Order 9006 on February 19, 1942 authorizing forcible removal of all Japanese Americans
from the Pacific Coast. Japanese Americans were incarcerated in 10 concentration camps
located inland from the coastline. The decision to intern over 120,000 Japanese
Americans was deemed a ‗military necessity‘ to prevent contact with Japan and thereby
prevent any espionage or sabotage. However, ―no person of Japanese ancestry living in
the United States was ever charged with or convicted of espionage or sabotage‖
(Historical, 2002).
The War Relocation Authority (WRA) was assigned to look for areas with good
soils for Japanese American Concentration Camps, but eight out of the ten concentration
camps are included in the 8 Western Camps with desert soils. Despite the WRA officials‘
claim to look for areas with good soil and after areas with desert soils were designated for
concentration camp land, the WRA hired Soil Conservation Service personnel to assist in
―preparing recommendations relative to conservation practices‖ (WRA). The Soil

2. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Conservation Service personnel were supposed to interpret existing soil survey data,
create additional soil survey data where information is not available, and classify lands.
In this paper I will investigate the soil types/profiles ―within the eight western Japanese-
American concentration camps in Arizona (Gila River and Poston), California (Manzanar
and Tule Lake), Colorado (Amache), Idaho (Minidoka), Utah (Topaz), and Wyoming
(Heart Mountain). All lay east of the Cascade-Sierra mountain ranges and all but Amache
and Heart Mountain lay west of the Rockies‖ (Lillquist, 98). Despite the WRA‘s Soil
Conservation Service personal‘s claim to assist in soil conservation practices, most of the
soil surveying and conservation efforts were achieved by Japanese Americans themselves.
― ‗…Austin E. Anson, managing secretary of the Salinas Vegetable Grower-
Shipper Association, told the Saturday Evening Post in 1942:‘ ‗We‘re
charged with wanting to get rid of the Japs for selfish reasons. We do. It‘s a
question of whether the white man lives on the Pacific coast or the brown
men. They came into this valley to work, and they stayed to take over… If all
the Japs were removed tomorrow, we‘d never miss them in two weeks,
because the white farmers can take over and produce everything the Jap
grows. And we do not want them back when the war ends, either‘ ‖
(Cram101, 2012).
Jealousy, pride and greed of West Coast American farmers in the 1900‘s resulted in
selfish anti-Asian sentiment and eventually incarceration of over 120,000 Japanese
Americans after the attack at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Anti-Asian sentiment
was initiated by influx of Chinese laborers in the mid-nineteenth century and intensified
by Japanese-American populations increasing agricultural land control (Lillquist, 76).
In the 1900‘s Japanese Issei, first generation Japanese living in America without
citizenship, became farmers after working their way up as immigrant agricultural laborers.
Citizens were Japanese Nisei, second generation Japanese Americans born in the U.S.
Sansei were third generation Japanese Americans born during or after World War II.In

3. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
1909 Japanese farmers in California controlled around 150,000 acres of farmland and in
1919 they controlled 450,000 acres. Although 450,000 acres represented only one percent
of California's agricultural land, its crops represented about 10 percent of the total value
of California's harvest (Archaeologists return, 2011).
In 1913 California passed the first alien land law forbidding those ineligible for U.S.
citizenship from owning land or engaging in leases longer than three years‖ (Lillquist,
2010). The Japanese Issei farmers‘ success in the 1900‘s was hindered, or it was thought
to be as far as yield goes, in 1913 by the enactment of California‘s Alien Land Law.
The Alien Land Law was an indirect means for California American farmers to
discriminate against Asians deemed ―aliens ineligible to citizenship‖ and to hinder them
from future agricultural success. Although the Alien Land Law was effective at excluding
Japanese Issei from American society, decreasing Japanese agricultural land ownership
by 44 percent between 1920 and 1925 and reducing Japanese-leased acreage by 75
percent between 1920 and 1925, the Japanese Issei never lost their agricultural talents.
The Japanese Issei adapted to and were resourceful with the landscape they were
provided (Archaeologists return, 2011).
Japanese Issei were branded as ‗aliens‘ and became a target of discrimination. They
were forced to maintain and adapt their cultural agricultural practices using desert soils
on the landscape they were ‗given‘ (not for ownership, but for lease outside the camps
and government land in the camps). Desert soil is what forced them to sustain their
intuitive agricultural techniques.
Issei Japanese American farmers utilized arid and semi-arid desert soil for
gardening and agriculture before and during the Japanese American Concentration

4. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Camps. Japanese Issei, unable to gain citizenship, were given land that West Coast
American farmers did not want. They were subjected to use soil from barren wasteland
near airports for agriculture before the concentration camps (personal communication,
Saburo Masada, Feb 20, 2013).
After the attack at Pearl Harbor President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066.
This order had the effect of ‗relocating‘ all persons of Japanese ancestry, even if it was
only 1/16th
ancestry, both citizens and aliens, inland, and away from the West Coast
(National Archives, 2012).Japanese were moved inland and away from the West Coast to
prevent any communication with Japan, to effectively remove Japanese from gaining
further agricultural success on coastal California farmers‘ land, and reduce future
Japanese agricultural success with inland, off of coast, desert soil.
This research paper addresses the soil types/profiles ―within the eight western
Japanese-American concentration camps in Arizona (Gila River and Poston), California
(Manzanar and Tule Lake), Colorado (Amache), Idaho (Minidoka), Utah (Topaz), and
Wyoming (Heart Mountain). All lay east of the Cascade-Sierra mountain ranges and all
but Amache and Heart Mountain lay west of the Rockies‖ (Lillquist, 98). The Amache,
Colorado concentration camp will be a focus of this research paper due to availability of
agricultural soil study resources.

5. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Map 1. Western Exclusion Area et al. Sherwin, n.d.
Before diving into the soil during the concentration camps it is important to note
who managed the soil and what was farmed on the soil (if anything) before the camps.
―Western lands that became [concentration camps] were primarily managed by
various governmental entities in early 1942. The US Bureau of Reclamation
oversaw the Heart Mountain, Minidoka, and Tule Lake sites as parts of large,
developing irrigation projects. The City of Los Angeles owned Manzanar as a piece
of its early twentieth-century land and water grab1
in the Owens River Valley. Gila
1
California water wars in the early twentieth century created a political hotbed for water in Owens River
Valley, California- where Manzanar was located. “The California Water Wars were a series of conflicts
between the city of Los Angeles, farmers and ranchers in the Owens Valley of Eastern California, and
environmentalists.” Before the advent of the water wars, Shoshone-Paiute Indians who used irrigation to
grow crops occupied Owens valley. The city of Los Angeles discovered in the early 1800’s that Owens
Valley had a large amount of runoff from the Sierra Nevada to create a gravity-fed aqueduct that would
deliver the Owens water to Los Angeles. In 1863, the U.S. Army forcibly drove Shoshone-Paiute Indians
away from Owens Valley during Owens Valley Indian War. Irrigation for the city of Los Angeles was too
valuable and the Shoshone-Paiute Indians reservation was moved down the street. The construction of the
Owens Valley aqueduct was completed in 1913. As Los Angeles grew from the 1800’s to early 1900’s,
there was demand for a greater water supply. Once the aqueduct was completed so much water was
diverted from Owens River Valley, that “by 1926, Owens Lake at the bottom of Owens Valley was
completely dry” (Wikipedia, 2013). The city of Los Angeles even went as far as using the Los Angeles

6. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
River resided on the Gila River Indian Reservation lands, whereas Poston lay on the
Colorado River Indian Reservation. Both were managed by the US Bureau of
Indian Affairs‖ (Lillquist, 77-78).
The government ―paid‖ Native Americans to use their reservation land for Japanese
American concentration camp building projects. The government‘s ―pay‖ to Native
Americans in exchange for use of their reservation land to build Japanese American
concentration camps was the ―labor‖ of Japanese American Issei and adolescent Nisei.
Japanese American Issei and Nisei would be laborers of Native American Irrigation
Projects, and would build and aid the in designing reservation irrigation canals and
ditcheswith the U.S. government‘s irrigation project plan. Although Native Americans
were paid with Japanese American labor from the U.S. government for their reservation
irrigation project, they were unaware of Japanese Americans‘ subjection to concentration
camps and ultimately slave labor on their reservation. Land parcels at Amache and Topaz
were privately owned (Lillquist, 78). Amache, Gila River, Manzanar, Topaz, and Tule
Lake had been previously farmed. Heart Mountain and Minidoka, lands owned by Bureau
of Reclamation lands, and Poston, land owned by Colorado River Indian Reservation
were not previously farmed (Lillquist, 78).
Confinement of Japanese Americans in Japanese American concentration camps
was a government action taken as a precautionary measure during WWII. Discrimination
and prejudice against Japanese as a minority target began far before WWII and at the
beginnings of Japanese immigration to North America (Stamper, homepage).In the first
half of the 20th century, there was anti-Japanese prejudice in California. The prejudice
Aqueduct to not only oppose the Manzanar project, but to lead “residents of Los Angeles to believe that the
evacuees might poison or contaminate the city’s water supply or sabotage the aqueduct if the Manzanar
project happens” (Unrau, 442-443).

7. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
was rooted in the wave of Japanese Issei immigrants and their agricultural success,
especially with vegetable and fruit crops—most notably strawberries. ―Of 127,000
Japanese Americans living in the continental United States at the time of the Pearl Harbor
attack, 112,000 resided on the West Coast.The Issei had agricultural success in America
and particularly in California because their traditional culture embodied both respect for
the soil and hard work and many also came from rural agricultural settings in Japan
(Lillquist, 2010). I hypothesize that because Japanese immigrants, later called Japanese
nationals because they were ineligible to gain U.S. citizenship, came from the small
island of Japan with limited resources; their work ethic rivaled that of American farmers
who had no lack of arable land or resources. Before Japanese immigrants arrived in
America they were already used to Japan‘s problematic agricultural system: the small
size of the country provided small size of individual farms that required labor-intensive
farming (Campbell, 1995). WhiteAmerican farmers who resented Japanese-American
farmers for their agricultural successes were fans of Japanese incarceration, or what they
considered internment. They saw incarceration as a way to displace Japanese American
competitors from their agricultural land for success (Lillquist, 2010).
After Executive Order 9066, the War Relocation Authorities (WRA) chose states
and plots of barren land within those states for building Japanese American concentration
camps. The WRA was a United States government agency established to handle the
forced relocation and detention of those with Japanese, German and Italian ancestors
during World War II. The ‗intention‘ to search for ‗relocation camps‘ (a euphemism used
instead of concentration camps) would provide work opportunities by ―‗hiring many
experts who know the West's resources thoroughly...‘ as they ‗combed the country from

8. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
the border of Military Area No. 1 to the Mississippi River.‘" The WRA officials looked
for ―areas with good soil, dependable water supply, a good growing climate, and
adequate transportation facilities.‖ The relocation area chosen was to provide ―work
opportunities that included: public works, such as flood control, irrigation development,
and soil conservation; agricultural production, such as cultivating and harvesting crops;
and manufacturing, such as the production of clothing, ceramic, or wood items‖ (Oregon
State Archives, 2008). ―In spite of government claims of searching for places with
"climates suitable for people," most of the camps were situated in barren, desolate
locations notable for wild temperature swings from day to night and from winter to
summer‖ (Oregon State Archives, 2008). WRA determined that Japanese Issei and Nisei
would be relocated to concentration camps in California, Utah, Arizona, Colorado,
Arkansas, Wyoming, and Idaho. Unfortunately, all camps in all states but Arkansas are
included in the western state Japanese American concentration camps that are occupied
by desert soils, also known as aridisols.
The WRA created agricultural programs in all of the camps. ―The agricultural
aspect of the centers is not surprising given that most of the WRA‘s key administrators,
including both directors, were former USDA employees. Evacuees were encouraged, but
not required, to work in the center agricultural programs‖(Lillquist, 77). Agricultural
program planners, Caucasian chiefs of agriculture, employed evacuees that were experts
in agriculture-related fields and, when available, used soil surveys to help identify prime
agricultural areas (Lillquist, 2010).
Regardless of Austin E. Hanson‘s view that the ―white farmers can take over and
produce everything the Jap grows‖ (quoted earlier in this paper), ―internment of Japanese

9. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Americans, who provided critical agricultural labor on the West Coast, created a labor
shortage, which was exacerbated by the induction of many American laborers into the
Armed Forces. The wartime labor shortage caused a mass immigration of Mexican
workers in the United States to fill these jobs and many Japanese internees were
temporarily released from their camps—for instance, to harvest Western beet crops‖
(Cram101, 2012).
It is evident that Japanese Issei agricultural history was needed to implement and
sustain agricultural programs in all Japanese American concentration camps, but
especially in the eight arid to semi-arid Japanese American concentration camps with
desert soils located in western United States. Soil orders of eight Western camps are
created by latitude, precipitation, temperature, native vegetation and dominant
landforms. Areas located in the same relative latitude will share relatively same
temperature and native vegetation. Precipitation varies within the eight camps but
all mean annual precipitation values lie in range from 38-84 inches. The mean
annual precipitation range is typically of a temperate grassland biome located 35-
55 degrees N + S latitude. The dominant landforms found at each of the Eight
Western Camps describe the soil profile glaciations’ history.
The eight western camps located continentally 150-750 miles inland following the
Western Exclusion area (refer to Map 1), share a broad range of latitude from 33-43
degrees F and elevation from 300-4700 feet above sea level, which subjects them to
varied temperatures and growing season length in days. The eight western camps can be
separated into three different subgroups based on latitude, which in turn affects mean
annual temperature, elevation, and length of growing season length in days. Tule Lake,

10. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Topaz, Minidoka, and Heart Mountain are considered a subgroup because they are more
northerly (have a higher latitude) with: lower mean annual temperatures (48-50 degrees
F), higher elevation, and shorter growing season (80-133 days). Also, these four camps
share shrub/ steppe as their dominant native vegetation. Gila River and Poston are
considered a subgroup because they are the more southerly (lower latitude) with: higher
mean annual temperatures (69-72 degrees F), lower elevation, and longer growing season
(247-297 days). Gila River‘s and Poston‘s dominant share desert plants as their dominant
vegetation: plants with spines (tiny leaves) that deal with drought. Amache and Manzanar
are considered a subgroup because they are mid- latitude camps between the two former
subgroups with: mid- annual mean temperatures (54-59 degrees F), mid-elevation, and
mid-length of growing season (162-210 days). Amache‘s and share steppe/shrub as their
dominant native vegetation.
Table 1. Physical Geography of 8 Western Japanese American concentration camps. et al.
Lillquist, 80.

11. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
As you can see although the subgroups are separated based on latitude, mean
annual temperature, elevation and length of growing season/number of growing degree
days, the dominant soils in each of the camps does not follow a distinct pattern. In
addition, the dominant landforms of each of the camps are varied and do not follow the
three concentration camp subgroups out of the eight western concentration camps‘ total.
Although the dominant landforms do not follow the pattern of subgroups they can add to
the description of soil orders based on glaciations‘ history and along with other subgroup
geographical characteristics.
From the time of California‘s Alien Land Law enactment in 1913, (which not was
not only California farmer‘s indirect means to discriminate against the Japanese farmers
because of their agricultural success in the 1900‘s, but also was a means to subject
Japanese farmers to barren and arid lands near Californian airports for crop production to
the time), to the time of Executive Order 9066, (which forcibly removed all Japanese
Issei, who could not gain citizenship in America and all Japanese Americans (Nisei and
Kibei), inward and away from the West Exclusion area), Japanese Americans have been
forced to farm on arid lands with low precipitation and desert soils. The inland locations,
off the of the Californian coast, of the eight Western Japanese American Concentration
Camps, ―ensured that [the concentration camps] received low precipitation, ranging from
approximately four inches/year at Poston to fourteen inches/year at Amache (see Table 1)‖
(Lillquist, 79). Although water is the most important factor for crop production on arid
lands with desert soils, water was insufficient in all eight inland concentration camp
locations.

12. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Desert soils are soils that have almost no water available for soil formation
(pedogenesis) or growth of plants (even mesophytic plants, which are adapted to dry
environments) for long periods of time (Verheye, 1). Desert soils, or ―arid and semi-arid
soils are mainly found in African (Sahara, Namibian and Kalahari deserts), the Middle
East (Arabian Desert, Iran, Afghanistan, Rajasthan, etc), North and South American
(Mohave Desert, Chile, etc. and Australia‖ (Verheye, 1). Although Manzanar, Poston,
and Gila River are part of the formerly mentioned Mohave Desert, North American
region, all eight western concentration camps are located in areas with desert soils.
Japanese Issei were forced to exploit the land they were given—forced to exploit desert
(arid/semi-arid) soils for crop production.
The WRA officials hired Soil Conservation Service personnel to initiate soil
conservation efforts for desert soils of Japanese American Concentration Camps. WRA
officials were in ‗search‘ of land with good soils to house 120,000 Japanese Americans
after Executive Order 9066 was ordered, but evidently this search led them to desert soils
of all eight western concentration camps. The WRA claimed their Soil Conservation
Service personal were technicians who were qualified to undertake concentration camp
soil conservation efforts (War Relocation Authority, Administrator). The Soil
Conservation Service personnel was implemented to interpret existing soil survey data,
create new soil survey data where existing data was not available, classify lands
according to use capability, and recommend conservation practices needed to insure
proper land use (War Relocation Authority, Administrator). The WRA did not choose
land with good soil to begin with. It seems that the WRA‘s hiring of Soil Conservation
Service personnel was more work and government spending than necessary.

13. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Although the WRA hired Soil Conservation Service personnel that were
supposedly qualified to initiate and implement soil conservation efforts for their ‗mistake‘
of not finding land with good soil, does not mean they were qualified, and even if they
were qualified does not mean they did their job effectively. Japanese soil chemists were
hired by the WRA to help agricultural program coordinators at each camp. Was this
because Japanese were more knowledgeable than the Soil Conservation Service
personnel hired bye the WRA to make up for their initial mistake of not finding areas
with good soils? ―Heart Mountain‘s evacuee assistant farm superintendent stated, ‗I had
the privilege of raising crops with about 500 of the finest farmers in America, including
experts in soil analysis and seed growing‖ (Lillquist, 86). Regardless of if the Soil
Conservation Service personnel did their job or not, desert soils provided to Japanese
farmers in eight Western Japanese American concentration camps needed far more
conservation and restoration than any other soil type for agricultural production.
Soil orders of the eight western concentration camps were combinations or arid
(aridisols), youthful (entisols and inceptisols, or grasslands (mollisols) (Lillquist 82).
These soil orders all exhibit alkaline and saline characteristics because of aridity, or the
dryness. Although Japanese were experienced West Coast gardeners and farmers after
adapting to wasteland American farmers did not want and before Executive Order 9066,
―few evacuees had agricultural experience in [concentration camp] environments.‖
Internees who had agrarian backgrounds came from humid, temperate regions of the
West Coast and ―were typically not familiar with agriculture in arid settings.‖ Gila River
and Heart Mountain benefitted internees with agricultural backgrounds that came from
rural populations. In contrast, fewer internees at Manzanar, Minidoka and Topaz had

14. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
agricultural backgrounds because they came from urban populations. One internee
starting farming at Minidoka said, ―And I started farming in front of my place and I had
to get books to farm. I didn‘t know nothing‖ (Lillquist, 86).
This was a way for white American farmers on the West Coast to keep the
progress and success of Japanese under their subjection. In fact, there were agricultural
fairs held within concentration camps where white American farmers, particularly those
on the West Coast who discriminated against Japanese, would converse with internees
and gain insight for improvement of their agricultural practice. Lillquist states that both
agricultural operations within the concentration camps and local operators benefitted
from interactions between internees and local farmers, but I theorize that white American
farmers in attendance at these agricultural fairs could withhold whatever information for
agricultural success they wanted to and gain new information they wanted to just the
same (Lillquist, 87).
The examination of soils used by Japanese Issei during and before the Japanese
American concentration camps topic was chosen because of my interest in plant
biotechnology. I took a plant biotechnology college course and learned how people in
semi-arid regions utilized their soils for agriculture. They selected crops based on the
nature of the soil and the landscape. I am interested in how people utilize land and soil
that is not ideal for agriculture. Several third world countries struggle with drought, pests
and desert soils, yet they manage to yield crops. Although this may not be large enough
for all of their people, there is yield. Like modern third-world country small-scale farmers,
the Japanese Issei found a way to make desert soils agriculturally productive in the
1900‘s. The Japanese Issei found a way to produce agricultural yield on the desert soils of

15. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
California before the concentration camps and on desert soils in the concentration camps.
They also managed to produce enough yield to feed their communities and all of the
people in the camps.
Figure 1. Soil Profile et al. Harwood
Soil Profiles: various layers called horizons characterize different soil types. The
picture above is a visual aid for description of standard soil profiles- the picture
represents an area of the soils dug out with the face of the soil is sticking out. Typical
soils are made up of an O,A, E, B, C, and R layers or horizons. Collectively A & E are
considered eluvial zone, whereas B,C and R are alluvial zone. Soils are distinct based on
their depth, particle contents and particle size of each horizon.

16. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Horizon or layer Horizon Common Name Description
O Organic layer
Surface layer dominated by
presence of large O-matter or
organic matter in different
stages of decay. Leaf litter is
not O-matter because it has
not yet begun to decay.
Nothing is considered O-
matter until it is decaying
A Top soil
Decayed O-matter, but more
decayed than O-horizon soil=
―humus‖, minerals;
biologically active= bacteria,
worms (earthworms and
nematodes), fungi, plant roots
E Eluviated
Leached = Water washed
minerals/ O-content down into
it. Often sandy. Considered a
poor region where what
removes through quickly and
O-matter is not retained
B Sub soil
Consists of mineral layers:
clay, iron, Aluminum oxide
and other minerals that have
leached out of E horizon, or
perhaps were present in parent
material.
C Parent material
Soil affected by soil forming
processes. (E.g.) In Minnesota
parent material is glacial till
and loess (silt-sized sediment
= 0.002- 0.05 mm, which is
formed by the accumulation of
wind-blown dust (Aeolian
activity).
R
Hard Bedrock, which is not
soil
Consists not of soil, but
affected by soil forming
processes. Bedrock. (E.g.) in
Minnesota bedrock is typically
chewed up and cobbly.

17. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Figure 2. Soil Horizons et al Soil‘s Lecture

18. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Soil texture is determined by the particle size and by mineral content and not the
amount of O- matter or organic matter it contains. Soil particles are ‗mineral‘, hard rocky
its and pieces that are not organic matter. There are 3 constituents at each extreme of the
soil particle pyramid= sand/silt/clay.
Soils Texture (particle size) et al. Soils Lecture.
Clay Separate, % on the left side and with the direction of the arrow pointing
upward (toward the tip of the triangle) indicates where percent of sand decreases and
percent of clay increases. Sand Separate, % on the bottom and where the arrow is
pointing towards sand indicates where percent of sand increases and percent of silt
decreases. Silt Separate, % on the right side and with the direction of the arrow pointing
downward toward silt indicates where silt increases and clay decreases. 100% clay at the
very tip of the triangle is classified by a particle size <0.002 mm. Clay overlaps and piles
up in sheets, which are impermeable to water. Clay hangs onto water not allowing water
to reach the A horizon where plant roots are; therefore, depleting plant roots from their

19. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
water source. When clay is dry it shrinks and cracks, and when wet it expands and swells.
Clays with higher shrink and swell potential result in poorer drainage (University of
Hawaii at Manoa, 2007-2013). As clay content of a soil profile increases the more
reactive the soil surface is, or the more there are overlapping sheets formed, which causes
problems because there is no draining and/or the soil surface will be dry and cracked.
100% silt at the bottom right of the triangle has a particle size from 0.002-0.05mm. 100%
sand at the bottom left of the triangle has a particle size between 0.05-2mm. Sand does
not hold onto water and if in a soil type lends to O-matter leeching out (taking nutrients
away from the plant rooting zone). Gravel is > 2mm and is usually in the R (hard
bedrock) horizon. Loamy particle sized soil located on the bottom center half of the
triangle is the idea agricultural soil. Loamy soil is not directly in the center of the triangle
because it does not contain equal parts of all 3 main soil particle constituents-
sand/silt/clay. Loamy soil has lower clay content with (50/50) silt and sand and 20% clay.
Typical soil profiles of the eight western Japanese concentration camps include
mollisols, aridisols, inceptisols and entisols. Soil consists of horizons near the Earth‘s
surface which differentiates from it‘s underlying hard bedrock parent material because it
is altered by interactions over time between: climate, occupancy before and during
concentration camps, relief or slope of the profile, and interactions with organisms,
interactions chemicals, wind erosion, water erosion (things not of the soils original
nature).
The following suborders or each of the main eight western Japanese concentration
camp soil orders: mollisols, inceptisols, entisols and aridisols, were found using maps
from Windwolf, 2007 defining mollisol, inceptisol, entisol and aridisol, dominant

20. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
suborders in the United States, respectively, and comparing location of soil suborders to a
map of concentration camp location. I hypothesized concentration camp soil suborders
based on soil profiles at the time when Japanese first came to concentration camps and
before Japanese used the soil. I hypothesized that:
Dominant mollisol suborder at both Tule Lake and Manzanar was xerolls
Dominant inceptisol suborder atboth Tule Lake and Manzanar was xerepts
Dominant entisol suborders at Tule Lake, Manzanar, Heart Mountain, Amache,
Topaz, Poston and Gila River, are a combination of orthents, psamments and
fluevents.
Dominant aridisol suborders at Gila River, Topaz, Minidoka, Heart Mountain and
Amache were a combination of Argids, Calcids, Cambids and Durids.
Mollisols are seen at Manzanar and Tule Lake. This is peculiar considering these
two concentration camps are at different latitudes, which usually do not describe similar
soil profiles. In fact Tule Lake and Manzanar share all three of their soil types: Entisols,
Inceptisols, and Mollisols. This could be because certain dominant landforms were
present in each of these places such as an alluvial fan at Manzanar and lake basin/tuff
cone at Tule Lake. Therecould possibly bedifferent glacial forms here.
Mollisols are the soils that form under grasslands and found more or less in the
mid latitude range (N and S, 35-55 deg.) Manzanar falls in the mid-latitude range, but
Tule Lake does not. Mollisols are common to Minnesota and occur in the prairie biome.
There main horizons are A, B, and C. The defining character for mollisols is their
incredibly deep A horizon, usually 60 to 80 mm.Their A-horizon is usually thick and dark
because it is humus (decaying O-matter) –rich. Roots of herbaceous perennials such as

21. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
grasses typically contribute to A-horizon O-matter. Grasses contribute to A-horizon O-
layer because they are monocots, which means they have fibrous rooting and in turn a
―high turnover rate.‖ Grasses ―high turnover rate‖ means the biomass of the grass lends
more to the A horizon O-layer because it can be cut off and harvested twice in one season.
The thick and dense (dark color) O layer of the A-horizon is formed by a continuum of
high-turnover rate grasses or herbaceous perennials because they die down each year and
contribute to humus-rich soil. For example bluegrass, a herbaceous perennial, with a
fibrous rooting system that is 10-15 feet deep willcontribute to the O-layer 10-15 feet
deep when the roots die. Then, when the plants die over winter it‘s biomass leaves a bed
of O-matter of the soil surface. Layers of O-matter accumulate on top of each other and
return Nitrogen back to the soil.
Further examination of native vegetation at Manzanar and Tule Lake is required
to determine if there is more grasses at Manzanar and Tule Lake compared to other
concentration camps.
Mollisols B horizon is characterized by clay leeching out from the upper A-
horizon and Calcium coming out from parent surface or C horizon; therefore, Mollisols B
horizon is made up of clay and calcium. Mollisols C horizon or parent material is bedrock
with limestone of Calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

22. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Mollisols et al Martinez, 2006.
MollisolsA-horizon is characterized as a ‗mollic epipedon‘. The A horizon, mollic
epipedon, is thick (>18-25 cm), dark and dominated by base-forming cations such as
Calcium, Ca (+2), and Magnesium, Mg (+2) (Harris, 2004 and Martinez, 2006). .It‘s B-
horizon may be characterized by Bk, which means we should see an illuvial (B,C, and R
horizons) accumulation of carbonates (carbon and oxygen concentration should be high)
either leeching from the A-horizon or a formed E-horizon, and/or alteration of the C-
horizon parent material (Hendricks, 1982)Also, the soil may show evidence of clay
illuviation (B,C, R horizons), which may be exposed at the surface because of erosion,
and have exchangeable sodium, Na (+2), along with magnesium and calcium (Martinez,
2006).
Mollisols ―are among some of the most important and productive agricultural
soils in the world‖; hence mollisols are rich in Minnesota and Iowa(middle latitudes that
are extensive in prairie regions such as the Great Plains of the US), because of it‘s ‗loamy
texture‘- soil with (50%/50%) silt and sand and 20% clay- the soil is not sandy, nothing
but clay is leeched out, which is good because clay can retain water and withhold water

23. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
from plant roots in the A horizon, and it has humus (O- matter with nutrients) rich A-
horizon (Martinez, 2006).
Mollisols loamy texture indicates Manzanar and Tule Lake had the best agricultural soils
at least in some areas of the concentration camp plots.
Xerolls aretemperate Mollisols, meaning they are found in regions with
Mediterranean climate- warm to hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters
(Windwolf, 2007). Mediterranean climates prevail in California where Tule Lake and
Manzanar are. Summers in Tule Lake and Manzanar can closely resemble summers in
arid and semiarid climates, such as Poston and Gila River. However, high temperatures at
Tule Lake and Manzanar during summers are usually not as high as those seen in Topaz
and Minidoka because of Tule Lake and Manzanar‘s close proximity to a large body of
water. Because Tule Lake and Manzanar are considered a part of Mediterranean climate
their dominant soils are not aridisols.Manzanar and Tule Lake dominant landforms are
alluvial fan and lake basin/tuff cone respectively (Lillquist, 80). Their dominant
landforms explain why xerolls are their main suborder of mollisols. ―Xerolls in the US
formed mainly in late-Pleistocene loess‖, which is Aeolian sediment or sediment formed
by the accumulation of wind-blown silt; therefore xerolls-mollisol suborder, typically
havea soil particle size of 20- 50 micrometers and Aeolian loess has a loamy soil profile
(50/50 sand and silt, and 20% or less clay) that is loosely cemented by calcium carbonate
(Windwolf, 2007).
Xerolls formed in late Pleistocene loess have Tertiary (layers older) lake
sediments, older crystalline rocks and alluvium as common parent materials or C-horizon
materials. Alluviumis loose, unconsolidated (not cemented together into a solid rock) soil

24. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
or sediments, which has been eroded, reshaped by water in some form, and redeposited
on land (Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia). Alluvium is typically made up of finer
particles of silt and clay and larger particles of sand and gravel. Alluvium parent material
or C-horizon material of soils at Manzanar and Tule Lake gave way to more movement
of ground water to the plant-rooting zone because of its loose, unconsolidated character
and its variance in particle size range. Manzanar‘s dominant landform is alluvial fan
because it is at a mid-elevation, at the base of a mountain that lends to Manzanar alluvial
C-horizon soil profile.
Its dominant landform lake basin/ tuff cone describes Xeroll, Mollisol suborder,
soil at Tule Lake. Tuff cones are a form of Maars, shallow, flat-floored craters forming a
hole-in-the-ground, and occur in the western United States. Tuff cones have a tall crater
floor at or above original ground level (Topinka, 2006). Tule Lake Maars or tuff cones
that derived xeroll soil at Tule Lake concentration camp can be traced back to
California‘s Ubehebe Craters, which include over a dozen maar volcanoes on the north
side of Tin Mountain. The Ubehebe Crater deposits overlie lakebeds of Lake Rogers
(hence noted in Lillquist‘s data that Tule Lake dominant landforms were lake basin/tuff
cone) (Topinka, 2006). Craters that overlie Lake Rogers give an explanation of why
xerolls have tertiary lake sediments in their C-horizon, parent material.

25. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Tip Mountain et al Ron Wolf, 2012.
From examining soils at either Manzanar or Tule Lake, I hypothesize that soils
should be thick, and dark containing calcium, magnesium, carbonates, exchangeable
sodium, and limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) in its C-horizon. Soil particle size is
20- 50 micrometers and soils have a loamy soil profile (50/50 sand and silt, and 20% or
less clay) that is loosely cemented by calcium carbonate. The fact Mollisols loamy
texture indicates Manzanar and Tule Lake have the best agricultural soils at least in some
areas of the concentration camp plots.The former fact about Tule Lake is supported by
Lillquist in that Tule Lakes organic-rich drained wetlands, or substantial O-horizon or A-
horizon rich in O-matter that was established by Japanese land drainage Tule lake as a
part in Tule Lakes agricultural project, gave Tule Lake good agricultural soil. On the
other hand, Japanese incarcerated at Manzanar could not establish a substantial O-layer
for agriculture because of Manzanar‘s City of Lost Angeles aqueduct water supply.
―Manzanar authorities frowned upon soil amendments because the City of Los Angeles
did not want to contaminate the Los Angeles aqueduct‖ (Lillquist, 83).

26. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Although access of irrigation hindered Manzanar and aided Tule Lake, both soil at
Manzanar and Tule Lake was more suited for agriculture because of it‘s soil alluvium
parent material or C-horizon material that is loose, unconsolidated and varies in particle
size which allows movement of ground water to reach the plant rooting zone more than
other soil types.
Inceptisols occur at only Manzanar and Tule Lake, just as Mollisols do.
Inceptisols are soils that do not exhibit significant differentiation among horizons or there
is minimal horizon development. They form quickly through alteration of the C-horizon
(parent material). Inceptisols have no accumulation of clays, iron (Fe), Aluminum (Al) or
organic matter (no O horizon) (Windwolf, 2007).Inceptisols are common to mountainous
areas because they have resistant parent materials (parent materials are resistant to
weathering, which inhibits soil development or horizon differentiation). Both Tule Lake
and Manzanar are surrounded by mountain ranges.
Inceptisols et al Martinez, 2006.
Inceptisols have either ochric or umbric epipedons. Ochric means ‗pale‘, and
orchric epipedons classify soils that are thin, light colored or pale and have low organic

27. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
matter- it‘s A horizon should be thin (Harris, 2004). On the other hand, umbric epipedons
are more thick (>18-25 cm) and dark like a mollic epipedons of mollisols, but have less
base saturation or less base-forming cations such as Calcium, Ca (+2), and Magnesium,
Mg (+2). Its subsurface horizons-below A-horizon, show more advanced weathering
without accumulation of silicate (Si), clays, iron (Fe), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and
organic-matter. Specifically, inceptisol Bw horizon is characterized by iron and
aluminum oxides that give darker, stronger or redder colors (Hendricks, 1982).
Xerepts aretemperate Inceptisols with very dry summers and moist winters;
therefore they are found in Mediterranean climates like that of Manzanar and Tule Lake.
Xerepts are more or less freely drained meaning they are well-drained soils or oxygen
rich soils. Oxygen rich soils as demonstrated by Inceptisol Bw characteristic show red or
brown colors caused by oxidation-interaction between oxygen molecules (Wikipedia
Foundation, Soil color, 2013). Xerepts are most common in the states of California
(where Tule Lake and Manzanar are), Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Utah.
Again, Manzanar and Tule Lake dominant landforms are alluvial fan and lake
basin/tuff cone respectively. Native vegetation at Manzanar was shrub/steppe and Tule
Lake is steppe/forest. Their dominant landforms and native vegetation explain why
Xerepts at both Tule Lake and Manzanar are their main suborder of inceptisols. Xerepts
were formed mostly from Pleistocene or Holocene deposits, young alluvial fan deposits
(Holocene and late Pleistocene) that are characterized by poorlyconsolidated and very
poorly sorted sand, gravel, cobble and boulder deposits (Davis, 1988).
Xerepts forming from young alluvial fan deposits corresponds to Manzanar‘s alluvial fan
dominant landformproviding evidence that xerepts are a possible soil inceptisol soil

28. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
suborder at Manzanar. Further evidence correlates native vegetation of Manzanar and
Tule Lake with xerept soils. Xerept soils occur where predominant vegetation types are
coniferous forests shrubs, grass, and widely spaced trees. Manzanar with shrub/steppe
(vast semiarid grass-covered plain) native vegetation and Tule Lake with steppe/forest
native vegetation correspond to predominant vegetation types of Xerept soils (Windwolf,
2007).
I conclude Inceptisol soils at Tule Lake and Manzanar can be classified under
suborder Xerepts. I hypothesize that the Xerepts will be more of an ochric epipedonthan
an umbric epipedon, because orchric is more common than umbric and inceptisols
demonstrate more advanced weathering without accumulation of O-matter. The soil A-
horizon will be thin (lacking in O-matter and possibly < 18 cm) and pale. The soil should
show more advanced weathering without accumulation of silicate (Si), clays, iron (Fe),
aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and organic-matter. The soil should give darker,
stronger,brown and red colors because it contains iron and aluminum oxides and is well-
drained soil.
Entisols are found at Amache, Gila River, Heart Mountain, Manzanar, Poston,
Topaz and Tule Lake; therefore, only excluding Minidoka, which only has aridisol as its
dominant soil--- maybe because it‘s dominant landform differs from all other camps
being a Volcanic Plain.Entisols are soils of a more recent origin; therefore, soil is far less
developed with loose, unconsolidated parent material and no real horizon except an A-
horizon.

29. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Entisols et al Martinez, 2006.
Entisols are weakly developed mineral soils without subsurface horizons (with
minimal or disturbed A horizon- where the plant rooting zone is and without a significant
B horizon). Ap horizon denotes an A horizon that is disturbed and not ideal for
agriculture because there is a loss of well decomposed O-matter (Hendricks, 1982).Most
likely has an ochric epipedon thin, light colored or pale and has low organic matter (it‘s
A horizon should be thin-Ap).May have an agric horizon directly beneath Ap horizon that
has formed under cultivation with amounts of silt, clay and humus O-matter. Japanese
American concentration camp entisol soils with an agric horizon would only be present if
concentration camp land was previously used- already cultivated: Amache, Gila River,
Heart Mountain, Manzanar,Topaz and Tule Lake- only excluding Poston. In addition, the
latter camps may also have more of an Ap horizon (even less well decomposed O-matter)
that Poston because previous plowing would cause more disturbance.
The exact type varies significantly depending on location. Entisols oflarge river
valleys and shore deposits provide good cropland because they are highly productive
soils on recent alluvium (loose, unconsolidated soil or sediments made up of variable
particle sizes: many C horizons, C1, 2, and 3 with smaller silt and clay and/or larger sand

30. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
and gravel) that provide adequate room for ground water movement to plant rooting
zone- hence ‗highly productive‘. Entisols found in steep, rocky settings form infertile
soils on barren sands, or shallow soils on bedrock (Windwolf, 2007and Martinez, 2006)
Suborders of Entisols:
Tule Lake and Manzanar- Orthents of Psamments
Heart Mountain- Orthents and Fluevents
Amache- Orthents and Fluevents
Topaz- Orthents, Psamments, Fluevents
Poston and Gila River - Orthents and Fluevents
―Orthents arecommon Entisols that don't meet criteria of other suborders‖ (Windwolf,
2007). Orthents occur in any climate and under any vegetation and primarily found on
recent erosional surfaces.Psamments are very sandy Entisols. There are typically various
sized sand particles within all horizons of psamments. Psamments are ―characterized by
poorly graded (well sorted) sands on shifting or stabilized sand dunes‖ (Windwolf, 2007).
Fluevents are alluvial Entisols commonly found on floodplains. Fluevents are brownish
to reddish soils that formed in recent water-deposited sediments, such as flood plains,
fans, and deltas of rivers. Amache‘s floodplain dominant landform and Topaz lake basin
dominant landform describes why fluevents may be the main entisol suborder. Layers of
stratified clay characterize Fluevents with more organic carbon than other layers
(Windwolf, 2007).
Could Psamments Manzanar‘s entisol suborder because of Manzanar‘s proximity to
Death Valley?

31. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Death Valley et al. Michael Melford, n.d.
Gila River and Poston with similar latitudes were initially grouped together as
having similar soil types. Therefore, both with fluevents provide evidence that locations
with similar latitudes have similar soil profiles. In addition Gila River‘s and Poston‘s
dominant landforms of pediment/alluvial fan and floodplain and native desert vegetation
aids in fluevents as their main suborder.
Heart Mountain - Orthents and Fluevents—Pediment/Terraces
Amache - Orthents and Fluevents—Interfluve/Floodplain
Topaz- Orthents, Psamments, Fluevents—Alluvial Fan/Lake Basin
In conclusion, I hypothesize that Japanese Americans incarcerated atAmache, Gila
River, Heart Mountain, Manzanar, Topaz and Tule Lake concentration camps with
entisols that have been previously farmed (excluding Poston) would have worse soil for
agriculture. Manzanar has suborder psamments because of its proximity to Death Valley
sand dunes. It is curious to me why suborder fluevents would not be found at Manzanar
because of its alluvial fan dominant landform, but maybe there is just more wind and soil
erosion in this location.
Aridisols are dominant soil types at Gila River, Topaz, Minidoka, Heart Mountain,

32. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
and Amache.Tule Lake, Poston and Manzanar do not have aridisols as a dominant soil
type. It is curious why Manzanar and Tule Lake, concentration camps with mollisols and
inceptisols, do not have aridisols. Although Manzanar and Tule Lake also have entisols
as a dominant soil type, it can be hypothesized that entisols are not the determining factor
inhibiting Manzanar and Tule Lake from having aridisols because other concentration
camps, such as Gila River, share both entisols and aridisols as their dominant soil type.
I hypothesize that because Manzanar and Tule Lake have a Mediterranean Climate,
aridisols will not occur there even if entisols are found there. Aridisols are not typically
found in places where annual temperatures range dramatically from very cold to very hot
(Windwolf, 2007). Aridisols are characterized by being dry most of the year because in
these soils, there is not enoughadequate soil moisture for plant growth. ―Aridisols
dominate the deserts and xeric shrublands‖ like that of Gila River, Topaz, Minidoka,
Heart Mountain, and Amache. Aridisols have a very poor concentration of organic matter.
Imperfect leaching in aridisol results in one or more subsurface soil horizons to
havedeposits of suspended or dissolved minerals; such as clays, calcium carbonate, silica,
salts, and/or gypsum accumulations. Aridisols are very susceptible to salinization because
they are known for accumulating salts in topsoil and subsoil horizons (Windwolf, 2007)
Gila River- Argids, Calcids, Cambids and Durids.
Topaz- Mostly Calcids and some Argids
Minidoka-Argids, Calcids, Cambids, Durids
Heart Mountain - Argids with a very small chance of Calcids
Amache- Mainly Argids and some Cambids and/or Calcids
Argids arearidisols with clay accumulation. Calcids arearidisols with calcium
carbonate in the parent materials or was added as dust or both. Precipitation is inadequate

33. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
to leach or move the carbonates to great depths. These soils are extensive in the western
USA and other arid regions of the world. Cambids are a common Aridisol in the USA
and have a weakly developed B-horizon.Aridisols with a weakly developed B-horizon
indicate lack of horizon development in Aridisols overall- lack of proper nutrients for
plant growth. Durids are soils that are mostly found on slopes in the Western part of the
USA, particularly in Nevada.Durids have calcium carbonate accumulations are
characterized by duripan, a subsurface hardpan that is cemented by illuvial silica, which
is a barrier to both plant roots and water.
Aridisols et al Martinez, 2006.
Aridisols B layers Bt, Btk and Bkm classify different deposits of suspended or
dissolved minerals after imperfect leeching (or drainage of minerals to lower layers from
the A-horizon).

34. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Map 2. Aridisols dominant suborders in the United States et al. Windwolf, 2007.
The complexity of mollisols, inceptisols, entisols and aridisols soil profiles and
their various suborders was problematic for Japanese Americans in the 8 Western
concentration camps. Map 2 demonstrates the various aridisol suborders and their dense
concentration in Western United States. I do not believe that it is coincidence aridisols
are concentrated just inland of the West Coast where Japanese Americans were forcibly
incarcerated.
Overall, aridisols that are common to many concentration camps lack in several
essential plant nutrients. The sevenmajor nutrient elements or macronutrients needed by

35. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
plants and provided by soils are: calcium, potassium, magnesium, nitrogen, sulfur,
phosphorus, and iron. In addition, the seven minor nutrient elements or micronutrients
needed by plants and provided by soils are: boron, copper, chlorine, manganese,
molybdenum, nickel and zinc. Together, the 14 nutrients are known as the essential plant
nutrients and a plant cannot complete its lifecycle (flower and set seed) if its soil does not
provide it with these essentials nutrients. How do the minerals go from the soil to the
plant roots? The 14 essential elements or nutrients must dissolve in soil water before
plants can take them up.If a soil is deficient of even one plant nutrient, plant growth will
be retarded and crop yield will diminish. When soils are poor in mineral nutrients, the
plant develops a more extensive root system. However, shoot system growth that
produces the crop is compromised by root system growth (Chrispeels and Sadava, 2003).
Soil order composition is dependent on the low precipitation; warm growing
seasons, windy conditions, high evaporation rates and overall negative moisture balances
of all eight western concentration camps because of their inland location.
The eightWestern Japanese American concentration camps‘ soil orders and their
respective suborders all exhibit alkaline and saline characteristics because of
aridity.Alkalinity of concentration camp soil is expressed by its concentration of
hydrogen ions (H+) dissolved in the soil water. Alkaline or basic, and the opposite of
acidic, soil are expressed by a pH of 9 with 100 times few hydrogen ions than a neutral
pH of 7. Alkaline soil is not suitable for plant growth because fewer H+ ions disturb soil
weathering and nutrient availability (Chrispeels and Sadava, 2003).
Did the Japanese American farmers know that sulfur was the most effective
element to acidify alkaline soil or make it neutral for plant growth? Or, did they know if

36. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
and when they used acidic fertilizers, such as ammonium sulfate that they would
neutralize excess alkalinity?Regardless of what Japanese Americans knew of did not
know about alkaline soils, they would have had to figure it out to plant in camps because
most Japanese were not used to arid soils before incarceration.
Poor soil fertility at all eight Western Japanese American concentration camps
required irrigation for agricultural production because precipitation is scarce in arid
climates. Irrigation of land increases soils susceptibility to salinization, or the
accumulation of salts in topsoil because all groundwater and river water contains
dissolved salts, but rainwater does not. Although irrigation can cause soil salinization,
salinization occurs in arid regions where mean annual evapotranspiration (evaporation
from the soil plus transpiration by the plants or water in the for of gas given off by soil
and plants) exceeds that of precipitation. I hypothesize that salts were more likely to
accumulate in concentration camp soil because there was not enough rain to carry or
leech salts out of topsoil. Dissolved salts in saline soils are mostly comprised of Na+ and
Cl- ions, but sulfates and carbonates may be present. I hypothesize that salinization from
groundwater was also problematic in concentration camps because of their proximity
with coast areas where the intrusion of seawater below ground level can carry salts into
topsoil (Chrispeels and Sadava, 2003).
Some concentration camp soils were too alkaline and saline for any farm
productivity. There seemed to be a consensus among Japanese American internees that
the soils they were given were beyond restoration. ―One evacuee wrote, ‗My next door
neighbor is a soil chemist that leaves every morning looking for less alkali and finding
more‘‖ (Lillquist, 83).

37. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Further research will have to be done about salinity of irrigation water used at
each concentration camp. The table below by Lillquist, 2010, does not give adequate
information to examine proper salinity of the 8 Western Japanese American
concentration camp water supply.SC represents specific conductivity, a measure of the
salinity hazard in irrigation water. Higher numbers mean greater hazard. SAR represents
sodium absorption ratio, a measure of the sodium hazard in irrigation water. Higher
numbers mean greater hazard (Lillquist, 80). As you can see there are several question
marks where either data collected is inaccurate or data has not been collected at all.
All soil types can experience desertification (inability to grow crops on land) after
land degradation revolving around poor agricultural practices and/or poor land
management: overuse of pesticides/herbicides, soil erosion, deforestation, intensive
cropping as a result of overpopulation, decline in organic matter and biological activity of
soil and soil salinity or alkalinity increased by irrigation. Land degradation leads to a
downward slope towards desertification. However, aridisolsexposed to greater soil
temperature extremesare very susceptible to desertification even without land degradation.
Usually, desertification begins with prolonged loss of vegetative cover resulting in a
crusted soil surface (think about all of the vegetative cover cleared at Manzanar just to
build the camps!). The crusted soil surface then causes a downward slope to
desertification: decreased infiltration and increased runoff, reduced soil-water (essential

38. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
plant nutrients) for plant growth, decreased plant production, decreased organic inputs to
soil, greater soil temperature extremes, reduced fertility and soil organic matter, and
ultimately deteriorated soil structure leading up to future soil erosion (decreased nutrient
and water-holding capacity).
I do not know the philosophy behind the WRA‘s choice of Manzanar as a place to
incarcerate Japanese Americans.Manzanar is such a remote location with soil conditions
not at all suitable for agriculture. Though it was a sure way to hinder Japanese
agricultural success.
Adequate water supply was necessary for agricultural production on concentration
camp soils. All camps except for Amache, because of its former private land ownership,
had sufficient water available. Although water supply as a quantity was a necessity,
water irrigation quality was problematic for soil. For example, was the quality of soil at
Gila River affected by it‘s primary irrigation method of using ―waste water from a
sewage treatment plant.‖ Lillquist states that muddy irrigation water from summer
thunderstorms at Gila River was ―detrimental to new plantings,‖ which means plant
essential nutrients were depleted. Manzanar irrigation salinity and sodium hazard levels
were not provided in the table above. Irrigation at Manzanar with use of the Los Angeles
aqueduct provided soil with minimal salinity andsodium absorption ratios. Irrigation
water used for the other seven Western Japanese American concentration camps ―had
medium to high sodium absorption ratios because of arid conditions thus resulting in
medium to high salinity and sodium hazards for crops‖ (Lillquist, 81). Concentration
camp soil had to be drained and flushed of salts before farm production, but ―drainage
was often restricted because of the low gradient nature of the lands‖ (Lillquist, 83).

39. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Manzanar
Two different studies demonstrate soil types at Manzanar Lillquist, 2010 and
Unrau, 1996. Lillquist‘s study of Manzanar‘s dominant soil types as entisols, inceptisols
dominant soil types is supported by Harlan D. Unrau, 1996, but not mollisols.
Unrau‘sarticleindicates,―soil at Manzanar was of a light sandy type, lacking in sufficient
nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid‖ (HPO4) (Unrau, 442). Potash describes salts that
contain potassium in water-soluble form. According to Unrau Manzanar‘s soil is lacking
in potassium compounds and potassium-bearing materials such as potassium chloride
(KCl). Unrau‘s article supports Lillquist‘s demonstration that Manzanar does not have
aridisols as a dominant soil type. Both Lillquist and Unrausee Manzanar‘s average annual
precipitation amounting to only 4.5 inches to 4.6 inches. Annual precipitation of 4.5-4.6
inches is probably too much precipitation for Manzanar to have aridisols as its dominant
soil type; however, its light sandy type lacking in minerals is evidence that its inceptisol,
entisol soil types are bordering aridisols with low enough annual precipitation to be close
to aridisols minimal precipitation. Manzanar‘s ―arid climate and sandy soil conditions‖
was problematic for Japanese American agricultural production. Both articles support
that Manzanar was part of a Mediterranean climate with warm to hot, dry summers and
mild to cool, wet winters. Manzanar ―at an elevation of approximately 4,000 feet,‖ has
temperatures ―that range from 10 degrees below zero during some winters to highs of
more than 100 degrees above zero nearly every summer‖ (Unrau, 442). Lillquist notes
Manzanar‘s mean annual temperature is 59 degrees, which agrees with highs above 100
degrees and lows 10 degrees below zero (Lillquist, 80).

40. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
High temperatures at Manzanar during summers are usually not as high as those
seen in in areas with aridisols as their dominant soil type; therefore because Manzanar is
considered a part of Mediterranean climate and its close proximity to a large body of
water it‘s dominant soil type is not aridisols.
Lillquist states ―parts or all of Amache and Manzanar had been previously farmed,
while Unrau clarifies that Manzanar ―farm field acreages were established on wastelands
that had not been farmed for about 15 years‖ (Lillquist, 78, Unrau, 442).―Soils required
clearing, drainage and fertilizers to produce crops‖(Lillquist).―Supplemental fertilizers
and irrigation were necessary to produce crops.Having stood idle for such a lengthy
period, the fields were ‗covered with brush and badly hummocked with dunes caused by
hard winds‖ (Unrau, 442). Needless to say, both Lillquist and Unrau note that Japanese
Americans incarcerated at Manzanar had to invest much time and labor to reform the land
for eventual agricultural production--- just to live off the land, their main source of
produce. ―The primary goal of the WRA agricultural program was to grown food for
direct consumption by the evacuee residents of each center‖ (Lillquist 79). It is
impeccable how much clearing was actually accomplished to ready the land for any
agriculture. On my study away trip to Manzanar‘s 44th
annual pilgrimage, I was
bombarded with sagebrush in every direction when I walked through land owned by the
National Park Service that used to be Manzanar. In addition, more than sagebrush had to
be cleared, for when I traveled up to see the aqueduct used by internees there were piles
of huge and endless boulders. I cannot begin to comprehend all the sagebrush that had to
be cleared and boulders movedat Manzanar before barracks were built, posts were wound
with barbed wire and plots of supposed farm acreage were established.

41. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Based on information collected at the Manzanar Interpretive Center, Executive
Order 9066 was issued February 19th
, 1942 and Manzanar was built in March 1942. After
Executive Order 9066 it took only approximately 40 days to clear land at Manzanar and
build all barracks (National Park Service).It is evident that even with the amount of
sagebrush to be cleared and boulders moved, let alone some 40 barracks to be built that
the government was willing to do anything to get the land cleared and incarcerate 11,000
Japanese Americans. I question why the American government would choose a land that
was so labor intensive to clear for the sole purpose of incarceration Japanese Americans?
It is because Manzanar is a remote destination where internees could only travel so far on
train and then were bused the remainder of the way. The American government knew
exactly what they were doing when they chose Manzanar, for sagebrush and boulders
were of no concern as long as Manzanar was a place of isolation.
Figure 3. Prairie Soils and Desert Soils Profile et al. Railback

42. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
This picture gives a visual aid of comparison/contrast between mollisols and
aridisols. Mollisols are typically considered soils of the prairie; therefore, soils that form
under grasslands and have an incredibly deep A-horizon layer versus Aridisols, which
hardly have an A layer at all. None of the camps with Mollisols have aridisols. But,
Manzanar has entisols, inceptisols that are close to aridisols. This is a lighter sandy type
lacking in mineralsand a thinner A-horizon, but not as extreme as aridisols.
I hypothesize that because Manzanar‘sMediterranean-type climate with very dry
summers and strong winds from inland desert regions affect the nature of the soil surface.
I hypothesize because Manzanar is located at the base of a mountain and is at mid
elevation, ―elevation of approximately 4000 feet‖ it receives less rainfall and moisture
from the ocean than other higher elevation areas (Unrau, 442). Land at Manzanar was
―badly hummocked with dunes caused by hard winds.‖ Manzanar desert winds were of
―high velocity and blew much of the time from early March until lat June‖ (Unrau, 442).
Late 19th
century Japanese immigrant chrysanthemum farmers in San Mateo County,
located in the San Francisco Bay Area of California, provide further evidence of windy
conditions at Manzanar. Japanese immigrants to America developed a method to prevent
chrysanthemum buds from being damaged in wind or bleached by the sun by placing
cheesecloth hoods over chrysanthemums (Fukami, 1994). The Manzanar area continues
to demonstrate direct evidence of windy conditions and probable soil degradation due to
wind erosion by its current windmill farm landmarks. On my study away experience to
Manzanar, I witnessed a windmill farm (thousands of windmills) close to the Mohave
Desert. Although no windmill was in sync with another, each windmill was
continuallypropelled at high velocity by gusts of high velocity wind.

43. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Death valley soil is direct evidence of wind velocity and its erosion that affects
soil. Death valley is located about 100 miles from Manzanar and is comprised ofsand
dunes or accumulations of windblown sand. ―For dunes to exist at Death Valley, there
must be a source of sand, prevailing winds to move the sand, and a place for the sand to
collect. The eroded canyons and washes provide plenty of sand, the wind seems to always
blow (especially in the springtime)‖ (Death Valley National Park, n.d.).Death Valley
sand dunes represent generations of wind erosion that represents possible wind erosion
and therefore soil degradation from wind erosion at Manzanar based on its proximity
with Death Valley.
Death Valley et al Death Valley National Park, n.d.
Evidence of high wind velocity at Manzanar that is present today is probably the
cause for soil degradation. Wind action at Manzanar probably refers to 4 major processes
that adversely affected soil formation before Japanese Issei arrived in 1942: deflation,
abrasion and erosion, transport and accumulation. I hypothesize that the wind velocity at

44. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Manzanar removed and displaced soil particles over time, thereby creating physically
weathered and shallow soils. Wind deflation removes ―mainly fine and medium sized
particles-clay and silt first,‖ and then ―coarser sand afterwards, leaving ―behind a desert
pavement‖ for Japanese Issei to deal with. Dust storms of Manzanar are evidence of dust-
loaded wind that has erosive properties harsh enough to physically disintegrate rock
surfaces, and further erode soil surfaces. Chemical composition of Manzanar soils was
possibly compromised by wind transport. Wind blows different sized particles variable
distances based on particle size. ―The finest particles composed of fine silt and clay are
carried over much larger distances‖ than sand grains (Verheye, 6). Sand grains travel at
relatively shorter distances and land where initial dust, silt and clay have been removed
by wind deflation. They change soil compositions wind-blown particles by landing and
accumulating in ―deflation zones.‖ Sand grains will land and ―settle in more or less
continuous layers‖ where they ―either become progressively mixed with underlying soil
layers, or accumulate in dune formations‖ (Verheye, 7).
Overall, not only did the government subject Japanese Americans at Manzanar to
areas that required intensive clearing of native shrub steppe and desert scrub vegetation
(much like other camps), but also to land degraded by wind. Japanese Americans at
Manzanar had to combat not only the adverse soil conditions degraded by wind, but also
dust storms created by the wind and sandy alkaline soils that infiltrated their lungs and
barracks.
Before the camps, Japanese Americans were forced to adapt to soils and climates
before the camps. Their inability to lease land taught them to labor on soils of American
farmers and when they were allowed to lease land they had to adapt to land without

45. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
suitable soil conditions. Japanese Issei were subjected barren land near airports before
Executive Order 9066(personal communication, Saburo Masada, Feb 20, 2013).Even if
the soils near the airports were not desert soils, Japanese Issei have been adapting to
wastelands for years before they were incarcerated.
The American government‘s evacuation and incarceration of Japanese farmers
from the West Coast caused a major labor shortage in the United States. Before Japanese
farmers were forcibly removed from the West Coast they were successful tomato, celery,
pepper, and notably strawberry farmers. ―Japanese farmers were responsible for 40
percent of all vegetables grown in the state, including nearly 100 percent of all tomatoes,
celery, strawberries and peppers.‖ The American government was warned when
internment began in 1942 by Japanese Nobumitsu Takahashi, agricultural coordinator for
the Japanese-American Citizens League, that removal of Japanese would disrupt the
California vegetable industry because Japanese truck farmers produced crops valued at
40 million dollars annually (Hanson, G. (2011).
Japanese Americans were adapting their agricultural practices and restoring soil to
counter extreme sun and wind conditions long before incarceration. Their practices
before the camps were not abandoned once in the camps. Japanese in the Samateo Valley,
California were placed cheesecloth over chrysanthemums to protect them from extreme
wind and bleaching from the sun (Fukami, 1994). Japanese Americans of Samateo Valley,
California restoration efforts when faced with adverse soil temperature conditions before
concentration camps is paralleled with restoration efforts in concentration camps.―Heart
Mountain evacuees attempted to protect tender transplants from late spring cold as well
as wind with ‗hot caps‘ placed over individual plants (Lillquist, 82).

46. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
The question then is how exactly did they respond once in the camps using
―knowledge‖ gained before and or rather adaptation to soils they were forcibly given in
the concentration camps. ―Evacuee knowledge and interest in agriculture proved a key
factor‖ in making agricultural programs successful at each camp (Lillquist, 86). It seems
that although evacuees may have not dealt with arid soils before incarceration, they
managed to restore soil fertility with intuitive thinking.At Manzanar, fast growing barley
was planted in attempt to provide wind protection to agricultural crops (Lillquist, 82).
The native vegetation of eight Western Japanese American concentration camps
wasshrub steppe and desert scrub, which offered minimal O-matter. Most of the camps
had no substantial O-horizon and their A-horizon was thin and lacking in O-matter.
Without organic matter soil has a loss of nitrogen, which needs to be replenished before
plant growth (Lillquist, 83). Japanese Americans raised shrubs at center nurseries as
ornamental crops to beautify the harsh camp environments (Lillquist, 92). Japanese
Americans, may have never realized that not only did shrubs beautify the land, but also
gave nitrogen back to the soil- shrubs replenished soils source of nitrogen. Legume-rich
cover crops, such as nitrogen-fixing alfalfaGila River benefitted from nitrogen-fixing
alfalfa (a cover crop with high biomass to give organic matter back to the soil) that was
previously planted prior to Japanese incarceration (Lillquist, 83). Agricultural programs
at all the camps except Manzanar, because of fear of contaminating the LA aqueduct,
―managed to use livestock-manure, legume-rich cover crops, crop rotation and
commercial fertilizer,‖ to enhance soils O-matter and return nitrogen back to the soils
(Lillquist, 83).

47. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
I hypothesize that Japanese American evacuee farmers had success with
agricultural camp programs in arid climates and soils because of their labor-intensive
agrarian backgrounds and farming methods and their intuitiveness to find ways of
replenishing nutrients to soils.Heart Mountain‘s evacuee assistant farm supervisor
statedthat Japanese American evacuees left ―one of the few enduring legacies of the
relocation experience---the knowledge how to grow things inthat part of the country‖
(Lillquist 97,98). Now, farmers today in the Sahel and Sahara regions of Africa, the most
arid regions, are attempting to use the methods of Japanese Americans for agricultural
productivity, the alteration of planting crops between rows of legumes to give Nitrogen
back to arid soil.
A study done at Amacheprovides evidence that Japanese Americans applied
fertilizers, but further investigation is required to determine if other camps used fertilizers
as well. Erika Marin-Spiotta and Emily Eggleston part of the department of geography
and University of Wisconsin-Madison conducted a study to ―compare soil characteristics
of internment camp gardens to uncultivated soil inside and outside of the Camp Amache
boundary‖ (Marin-Spiotta and Eggleston, 10). They notably uncovered that in the garden
soils concentrations of Phosphorous (P), Potassium (K), and Nitrogen (N) in the forms of
NH4 and NO3, ―were notably higher beginning at the buried garden surface than at
similar depths in non-garden locations.‖ They hypothesized that garden soils were
affected by ―horticultural practices of internees‖. They also noted variable differences in
garden site soil profile Na concentrations, which they concluded to be ―attributable to
plant and fertilizer inputs and possibly ―interaction between the soil and addition water‖
need for plant growth in arid climates (Marin-Spiotta and Eggleston, 11). Could soils

48. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
with high sodium, Na, in the camps be an example of salinized soils from water used for
plant irrigation that was high in salts? Furthermore, pH data in garden sites shows a
pattern that is different from control sites. Further research will have to be completed to
determine what the pattern of pH measurements means and if pH measurements are a
direct result of internees‘ use of fertilizer. Did internees indeed restore their concentration
camp soils alkaline pH to a more neutral pH with fertilizer applications?
If the Japanese did use fertilizer in the camps, how did they know much inorganic
(Nitrogen-based) fertilizer to use? There are two extremes to consider when applying
fertilizer: nutrient limiting and nutrient toxicity/ Nitrogen toxicity. Nitrogen fertilizer is
the number one limiting nutrient for a plant to grow. If application of N-fertilizer is not
enough or too much plant growth is compromised. I cannot imagine if fertilizer was
indeed applied at Amache that the U.S. government would supply in abundance, but then
even if they did not have the opportunity to over apply because of lack of resources how
did they make sure nutrient release was not spotty or nutrient limiting?
Regardless of what conditions Japanese Issei were provided when they were first
immigrants unable to gain American citizenship and then incarcerated for their Japanese
ancestry, they adapted. Japanese rather thrived and did not just survive, with the barren
wasteland, degraded soil without adequate organic matter and high velocity winds that
caused further soil degradations from wind erosion. ―Despite equipment limitations,
Manzanar evacuees raised 1.6 tons of vegetables in 1942 with one rented tractor and ten
mules‖ (Lillquist, 84).Lillquist mentions equipment limitations, but in addition to lack of
mechanization, Japanese Americans had limitations of arable land, water supply and
quality, and agricultural soil. Japanese Americans had many factors against their

49. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
agricultural success, yet they managed to feed their peoples and create successful
agricultural programs within the camps. The Japanese culture refused to be defeated in
the adverse conditions given by the U.S. government and WRA. They refused to abandon
their integrity or agricultural practices in the camps.
コミュニティ, or Komyuniti, means community in Japanese. From the time that
Japanese first arrived in America to their time of incarceration and their reintegration into
American society after the concentration camps, Japanese Americans held on to the
community of it‘s people, Komyuniti. Before the concentration camps, Japanese
Americans in Samateo Valley, neighboring Japanese farmers worked together to place
cheesecloth hoods over chrysanthemums. It was a ―community affair,‖ one Japanese
American farmer said. ―Without our neighbors it would have taken 2 or 3 days, but with
neighbors 4 hours‖ (Fukami, 1994). Chrysanthemums were saved from wind damage, sun
bleaching and death, because of community. Within the camps,the Japanese Americans
did not abandon Komyuniti;instead they practiced community even more.
Community is what allowed Japanese Americans to not be robbed of a sense of
agency in the camps. They maintained their garden practices on any soil they were
granted in the camps, just as they had done before the camps. For the Japanese
Americans it had always been what they had been ―given‖ in America. For Japanese
immigrants with the English as a language barrier, gardening and agriculture was their
only means of work. Therefore, soils were a basic necessity for the Japanese immigrant
population. It seems they were robbed of good loamy textured agricultural soils from the
time the first Japanese immigrants arrived in the 1900s and continually robbed in the
concentration camps. Although Japanese Americans had no choice but to adapt to soils

50. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
in the camps, adaptation for Japanese in America had began far before the concentration
camps. Komyuniti banded Japanese whether in Japan of America and lack of good soil
would not change that.
I believe that even if the Japanese Americans were given a solid clay bed that held
all of the water, a concrete slab or a mound of gravel as soil for agriculture, they would
have found a way to adapt. Japanese Americans have proven to be resilient when it
comes to agriculture and gardening, which were their only means of income when
Japanese immigrants first came to America.
Further research topics:
How concentration camp soil profileswere affected with segregation of Japanese
in 1943? After the loyalty questionnaire was given in early 1943, ―disloyal‖
evacuees were transferred to Tule Lake and ―loyal‖ evacuees were transferred to
Mache, Gila River, heart Mountain, Minidoka, and Topaz. Lillquist states that
―loyal evacuees from Tule Lake enhanced Minidoka‘s agricultural programs upon
their arrive in fall 1943‖ (Lillquist, 85). How did soil at Minidoka change after
1943?
Contemporary investigation of soil types found in Canadian Japanese
concentration camps?
Also interesting to understand at which camps the farmers were more experienced
with agriculture? Why was it that Lillquist mentioned Gila River and Heart
Mountain with the greatest population coming from rural areas with agricultural
backgrounds (Lillquist, 86)?As I mentioned before hypothesizing about Issei
experience in Japan before the concentration camps influenced their success with
labor-intensive agriculture in the concentration camps. Were agricultural
programs more successful at Gila River and Heart Mountain because most of their
internees were already accustomed to agriculture on small individual farms of a
small Island, Japan?
Why were Topaz and Amache the two camps that produced the greatest diversity
of feed crops (Lillquist, 92)? Was it the soil profiles?
I would continue my research on Wayulee project at Manzanar.What were the
exact root cuttings Japanese Americans used to propagate Wayulee? What did
they use to combat the soil conditions and make the main rubber besides that of
the rubber used for latex today? Wayulee project is major evidence of what
Japanese Americans left behind for generations of all peoples to come, while
serving American troops who incarcerated them.
Why does Gila River have aridisols and Poston does not?

51. Erika Magnusson
Honors 401W Seminar
4 May 2013
Look at the salinity of Lake Rogers? Has the soil at Tule Lake and maybe
Manzanar been exposed to groundwater that is high in salt content? Would the La
aqueduct really be contaminated if Japanese at Manzanar were allowed to drain
their soils properly? Or, was this just a tactic to hinder Japanese agricultural
success within the camps- wasn‘t the incarceration of Japanese enough to stop
Japanese agricultural success outside of the camps… white American farmers
were already free to outcompete Japanese in concentration camps?
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