1. Chapter 4
Organization and
Regulation of Body
Systems

2. Points to Ponder
• What is a tissue? Organ? Organ system?
• What are the 4 main types of tissue?
• What do these tissues look like, how do
they function and where are they found?
• What is the integumentary system?
• How can you prevent skin cancer?
• What is homeostasis and how is it
maintained?

3. 4.1 Types of tissues
What is a tissue?
• A collection of cells of the same type that
perform a common function
• There are 4 major tissue types in the
body:
1. Connective
2. Muscular
3. Nervous
4. Epithelial

4. 4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports
1. Connective tissue
• Binds and supports parts of the body
• All have specialized cells, ground substance
and protein fibers
• Ground substance is noncellular and ranges
from solid to fluid
• The ground substance and proteins fibers
together make up the matrix of the tissue
• There are three main types of connective
tissue: A. fibrous , B. supportive and C. fluid

5. 4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports
3 main types of connective tissue
A. Fibrous
B. Supportive
C. Fluid
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Types of Connective Tissue
Fibrous connective tissue Supportive connective tissue Fluid connective tissue
Loose Dense Cartilage Bone Blood Lymph
Fibers create Fibers are Solid yet flexible Solid and rigid Contained in Contained in
loose, open densely packed matrix matrix blood vessels lymphatic vessels
framework

6. 4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports
A. Fibrous connective tissue
• There are two types: dense or loose, but
both contain fibroblast cells with a matrix
of collagen and elastic fibers
• Loose fibrous tissue is found supporting
epithelium and many internal organs
• Adipose tissue is a special loose fibrous
tissue where fat is stored

7. 4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports
What does loose fibrous connective
tissue look like?
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elastic fiber
collagen
fiber
fibroblast
Loose fibrous tissue
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
adipose cell reticular fiber
stores fat branched, thin, forms network
mast cell white blood cell
releases chemicals after produces antibodies
an injury or infection
ground substance elastic fiber
fills spaces between cells branched and stretchable
and fibers
© Ed Reschke
stem cell white blood cell
divides to produce other engulfs pathogens
types of cells
fibroblast collagen fiber
produces fibers and unbranched, strong but flexible
ground substance

8. 4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports
B. Supportive connective tissue:
Cartilage
• Cells are in chambers called lacunae
• Matrix is solid but flexible
• 3 types are distinguished by types of fibers
1. Hyaline cartilage – fine collagen fibers
Location: Nose, ends of long bones and fetal skeleton
2. Elastic cartilage – more elastic fibers than cartilage
fibers
Location: Outer ear
3. Fibrocartilage – strong collagen fibers
Location: Disks between vertebrae

9. 4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports
B. Supportive connective tissue:
Bone
• Cells are in chambers called lacunae
• Matrix is solid and rigid that is made of
collagen and calcium salts
• 2 types are distinguished by types of fibers
1. Compact – made of repeating circular units called
osteons which contain the hard matrix and living
cells and blood vessels
Location: Shafts of long bone
2. Spongy – an open, latticework with irregular spaces
Location: Ends of long bones

10. 4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports
What do bone and cartilage look like?
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Ed Reschke
matrix
cell within
a lacuna
Hyaline cartilage
© Ed Reschke

11. 4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports
C. Fluid connective tissue:
Blood
• Made of a fluid matrix Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
called plasma and
cellular components white blood cells
that are called formed
elements
• 3 formed elements: platelets
1. Red blood cells – cells red bloodcell
that carry oxygen
2. White blood cells – cells
that fight infection plasma
3. Platelets – pieces of
cells that clot blood

12. 4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports
C. Fluid connective tissue: Lymph
• Matrix is a fluid called lymph
• White blood cells congregate in this
tissue

13. 4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body
2. Muscle tissue
• Allows for movement in the body
• Made of muscle fibers/cells and protein fibers called
actin and myosin
• There are 3 types of muscle tissue in humans:
A. Skeletal
B. Smooth
C. Cardiac

14. 4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body
A. Muscle tissue - Skeletal Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Skeletal muscle
• Appearance: long, • has striated cells with multiple nuclei.
cylindrical cells, multiple • occurs in muscles attached to skeleton.
• functions in voluntary movement of body.
nuclei, striated fibers
• Location: attached to
bone for movement muscle fiber
• Nature: voluntary striation nucleus
250×
movement
a.
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

15. 4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body
B. Muscle tissue - Smooth Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Smooth muscle
• has spindle-shaped cells, each with
a single nucleus.
• Appearance: spindle- • cells have no striations.
shaped cell with one • functions in movement of substances
in lumens of body.
nucleus, lack striations • is involuntary.
• is found in blood vessel walls and walls
of the digestive tract.
• Location: walls of hollow
organs and vessels
• Nature: involuntary
movement 400×
smooth muscle cell nucleus
b. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

16. 4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body
C. Muscle tissue – Cardiac Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cardiac muscle
• Appearance: branched • has branching, striated cells, each with
a single nucleus.
cells with a single • occurs in the wall of the heart.
nucleus, striations with • functions in the pumping of blood.
• is involuntary.
darker striations called
intercalated disks
between cells
Place “New” Figure 4.5c here
• Location: heart The inset was removed.
• Nature: involuntary 250×
intercalated disk nucleus
movement
c. © Ed Reschke

17. 4.4 Nervous tissue communicates
3. Nervous tissue
• Allows for communication between cells
through sensory input, integration of data and
motor output
• Made of 2 major cell types:
A. Neurons
B. Neuroglia

18. 4.4 Nervous tissue communicates
A. Nervous tissue - neurons
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dendrite
• Made of dendrites, a
cell body and an axon
Neuron nucleus
cell body
Microglia
• Dendrites carry Astrocyte
information toward the Oligodendrocyte
cell body
myelin sheath
axon
• Axons carry information Capillary
towards a cell body
dendrite
nucleus
cell body
Micrograph of neuron
© Ed Reschke

19. 4.4 Nervous tissue communicates
A. Nervous tissue - neuroglia Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display
dendrite
• A collection of cells that
support and nourish Neuron nucleus
neurons cell body
Microglia
Astrocyte
• Outnumber neurons 9:1
Oligodendrocyte
• Examples are myelin sheath
axon
oligodendrocytes,
astrocytes and Capillary
microglia dendrite
nucleus
cell body
Micrograph of neuron
© Ed Reschke

20. 4.5 Epithelial tissue protects
4. Epithelial tissue
• A groups of cells that form a tight, continuous
network
• Lines body cavities, covers body surfaces and
found in glands
• Cells are anchored by a basement membrane
on one side and free on the other side
• Named after the appearance of cell layers and
the shape of the cells
• There is transitional epithelium that changes in
appearance in response to tension

21. 4.5 Epithelial tissue protects
How do we name epithelial tissue?
• Number of cell layers:
• Simple: one layer of cells
• Stratified: more than one layer of cells
• Pseudostratified: appears to have layers but only
has one layer
• Shape of cell:
• Cuboidal: cube-shaped
• Columnar: column-shaped
• Squamous: flattened

22. 4.5 Epithelial tissue protects
What does epithelial tissue look like?
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reproduction or display.
Simple Simple cuboidal
squamous
• lining of kidney
• protects tubules, various
glands
• lining of lungs,
blood vessels
• absorbs molecules
basement membrane basement membrane Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Ed Reschke
Pseudostratified, Stratified squamous
Simple columnar ciliated columnar
• lining of small • lining of nose,
• lining of trachea
intestine, oviducts mouth, esophagus,
• sweeps impurities anal canal,vagina
• absorbs nutrients
toward throat
• protects
cilia
goblet cell goblet cell
secretes secretes
mucus mucus
basement basement
membrane membrane basement membrane

23. 4.6 Cell junction types
How are cells connected within a
tissue?
• Tight junctions – proteins join and form an
impermeable barrier between plasma
membranes in a zipper-like fashion
• Adhesion junctions – cytoskeletal fibers join
between cells and have flexibility
• Gap junctions – a fusion of adjacent plasma
membranes with small channels between
them that allow small molecules to diffuse

24. 4.6 Cell junction types
Cell junctions
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microvilli
plasma
membrane
membranes
channels
tight junction plasma
proteins membranes
a. Tight junction c. Gap junction
basement
membrane
plasma
membranes
cytoplasmic
plaque
intercellular
filaments
cytoskeletal
fibers
b. Adhesion junction

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26. 4.7 Integumentary system
The integumentary system:
• Includes the skin and accessory organs such
as hair, nails and glands
• The skin has two main regions called the
epidermis and the dermis
• Under the skin there is a subcutaneous layer
between the dermis and internal structures
where fat is stored
• Is important for maintaining homeostasis

27. 4.7 Integumentary system
What are the functions of the
integumentary system
1. Protects the body from physical trauma,
invasion by pathogens and water loss
2. Helps regulate body temperature
3. Allows us to be aware of our surroundings
through sensory receptors
4. Synthesizes chemicals such as melanin and
vitamin D

28. 4.7 Integumentary system
There are two regions of the skin
• Epidermis
• Dermis Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
hair shaft
sweat pore Epidermis
stem cells
sensory receptor
capillaries
oil gland
Dermis
arrector pili muscle
free nerve endings
hair follicle
hair root
sweat gland
artery Subcutaneous layer
vein
nerve
adipose tissue

29. 4.7 Integumentary system
The epidermis:
• The thin, outermost layer of the skin
• Made of epithelial tissue
• Cells in the uppermost cells are dead and
become filled with keratin thus acting as a
waterproof barrier
• Langerhans cells are a type of white blood cell
that help fight pathogens
• Melanocytes produce melanin that lend to skin
color and protection for UV light
• Some cells convert cholesterol to vitamin D

30. 4.7 Integumentary system
What you need to know about skin
cancer?
• 2 of the 3 types that arise in the epidermis:
• Basal cell carcinoma is the most common yet least deadly
form of skin cancer
• Melanoma is the most deadly form of skin cancer but is the
least common
• What can you do to help prevent this?
• Stay out of the sun between 10am-3pm
• Wear protective clothing (tight weave, treated sunglasses,
wide-brimmed hat)
• Use sunscreen with an SPF of at least 15 and protects from
UV-A and UV-B rays
• Don’t use tanning beds

31. 4.7 Integumentary system
What might skin cancer look like?
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flattened and
dead cells
Epidermis
cells undergoing b. Basal cell
keratinization carcinoma
stem cells
and melanoytes
Dermis
dermal
projection
a. Light micrograph of skin c. Melanoma
a: © John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; b: © Ken Greer/Visuals Unlimited; c: © James
Stevenson/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

32. 4.7 Integumentary system
The dermis:
• The thick, inner layer of the skin
• Made of dense fibrous connective tissue
• Contains elastic and collagen fibers
• Contains blood vessels, many sensory
receptors and glands

33. 4.7 Integumentary system
What are the accessory organs of the
skin and why are they important?
• Includes nails, hair and glands
• Nails are derived from the epidermis that offer a
protective covering
• Hair follicles are derived from the dermis but hair
grows from epidermal cells
• Oil glands are associated with hair and produce sebum
that lubricates hair and skin as well as retards bacterial
growth
• Sweat glands are derived from the dermis and helps to
regulate body temperature

34. 4.8 Organ systems
Moving from tissue to organs and
organ systems
• An organ is 2 or more tissue types working
towards a particular function
• An organ system is a combination of organs
that work together to carry out a particular
function

35. 4.8 Organ systems
What are the organ systems of the
human body?
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Integumentary Cardiovascular Lymphatic and Digestive system Respiratory system Urinary system
system system immune systems
• ingests food. • maintains breathing. • excretes metabolic
• protects body. • transports blood, • helps control fluid • digests food. • exchanges gases at wastes.
• receives sensory nutrients, gases, balance. • absorbs nutrients. lungs and tissues. • helps control fluid
input. and wastes. • absorbs fats. • eliminates waste. • helps control pH balance.
• helps control • defends against • defends against balance. • helps control pH
temperature. disease. infectious disease. balance.
• synthesizes vitamin D. • helps control
temperature, fluid,
and pH balance.

36. 4.8 Organ systems
What are the organ systems of the
human body? Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Skeletal system Muscular system Nervous system Endocrine system Reproductive system
• supports the body. • maintains posture. • receives sensory input. • produces hormones. • produces gametes.
• protects body parts. • moves body and • integrates and stores • helps coordinate organ • transports gametes.
• helps move the body. internal organs. input. systems. • produces sex hormones.
• stores minerals. • produces heat. • initiates motor output. • responds to stress. • nurtures and gives birth
• produces blood • helps coordinate • helps regulate fluid and to offspring in females.
cells. organ systems. pH balance.
• helps regulate
metabolism.

37. 4.8 Organ systems
What are the body cavities?
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Cranial
cavity:
contains brain
Dorsal
cavity
Vertebral
cavity:
contains
Thoracic spinal cord
cavity:
contains heart,
lungs, and
esophagus diaphragm
Abdominal
cavity:
Ventral contains stomach,
cavity liver, spleen,
pancreas,
gallbladder,
and intestines
Pelvic
cavity:
contains
reproductive
and other
organs
a.
plurae
Thoracic cavity:
contains esophagus,
pericardium heart, and lungs
Abdominal cavity:
peritoneum contains digestive
and other organs
Pelvic cavity:
contains reproductive
and other organs
b.

38. 4.8 Organ systems
What about the body membranes
that line the cavities?
• Mucous membranes – lining of the digestive, respiratory, urinary
and reproductive systems
• Serous membranes – line lungs, heart, abdominal cavity and
covers the internal organs; named after their location
• Pleura: lungs
• Peritoneum: abdominal cavity and organs
• Pericardium: heart
• Synovial membranes – lines the cavities of freely movable joints
• Meninges – cover the brain and spinal cord

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40. 4.9 Homeostasis
What is homeostasis?
• The ability to maintain a relatively
constant internal environment in the
body
• The nervous and endocrine systems are
key in maintaining homeostasis
• Changes from the normal tolerance limits
results in illness or even death

41. 4.9 Homeostasis
All systems are important in
maintaining homeostasis Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Endocrine System
All systems of the body contribute to Endocrine glands secrete hormones, which
maintain homeostasis. These systems also regulate and coordinate the activities of
in particular are especially noteworthy. other systems. Works more slowly than the
nervous system.
Nervous System
Regulates and coordinates the activities of all Respiratory System
the other systems. It responds quickly to
internal and external stimuli. Supplies blood with oxygen for tissue cells
and rids blood of carbon dioxide. Helps
regulate the acid-base balance of the blood.
Cardiovascular System Urinary System
Transports oxygen and nutrients to tissue Excretes nitrogenous and other wastes.
cells and transports wastes away from cells. Regulates water-salt balance of the blood.
Also transports hormones secreted by the Helps regulate the acid-base balance of the
endocrine glands. blood.
Digestive System Lymphatic System
Supplies blood with nutrients and water for Helps maintain blood volume by collecting
tissue cells. Rids the body of nondigestible excess tissue fluid and returning it via
remains. lymphatic vessels to the cardiovascular veins.
Defends against disease.
Muscular System Integumentary System
Produces heat that maintains body Helps maintain body temperature and protects
temperature. Protects and supports internal internal organs.
organs.

42. 4.9 Homeostasis
What are the mechanisms for
maintaining homeostasis?
• Negative feedback
• Positive feedback

43. 4.9 Homeostasis
Negative feedback
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• The primary mechanism
Control center
for maintaining
homeostasis sends data to control center directs response to stimulus
Sensor Effect
• Has two components:
• sensor
• control center negative feedback
and return to normal
stimulus
• The output of the system
too m
dampens the original uch
Homeostasis
too li
ttle
stimulus

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46. 4.9 Homeostasis
An example of negative feedback:
body temperature
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Control center
sends data to directs response
98.6°F set point
control center to stimulus
Sensor
Effect
Blood vessels dilate;
sweat glands secrete.
negative feedback
stimulus and return to normal
temperature
abov
e norm
al
Normal body temperature
below
no rmal
negative feedback
stimulus
and return to normal
Effect
Sensor
Blood vessels constrict;
sweat glands are inactive;
shivering may occur.
Control center
directs response
to stimulus
sends data to
control center
98.6°F set point

47. 4.9 Homeostasis
Positive feedback
• A mechanism for increasing the change of the
internal environment in one direction
• An example is the secretion of oxytocin during
birth to continually increase uterine
contractions
• Can be harmful such as when a fever is too
high and continues to rise