Anatomy And Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 12 Blood

Introduction to Blood ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Vital Functions ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Blood Substitutes ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

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Blood and Blood Cells ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Blood Volume ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Composition of a Blood Sample ,[object Object],[object Object]

Blood consists of a liquid portion (plasma) and a solid portion (RBC’s, WBC’s, platelets). When blood separates, the WBC’s and platelets form a thin layer called the “buffy coat” between the plasma and the RBC’s .

Red Blood Cells / Erythrocytes ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Red Blood Cells. A.) The biconcave shape of a red blood cell makes possible its function. B.) Scanning electron micrograph of human RBC’s. (colored)

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RBC Counts ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Hemopoiesis ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Low blood oxygen causes the kidneys and liver to release erythropoietin, which stimulates the production of red blood cells that carry oxygen to tissues.

Origin and development of blood cells from hemocytoblasts (stem cells) in bone marrow.

Dietary Factors Affecting RBC Production ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Anemia ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Sickle Cell Disease ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Destruction of RBC’s ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Life cycle of a red blood cell. 1.) Small intestine absorbs essential nutrients. 2.) Blood transports nutrients to red bone marrow. 3.) In the marrow, RBC’s arise from the division of less specialized cells. 4.) Mature RBC’s are released into the bloodstream, where they circulate for about 120 days. 5.)Macrophages destroy damaged RBC’s in the spleen and liver. 6.) Hemoglobin liberated from RBC’s is broken down into heme and globin. 7.) Iron from heme returns to red bone marrow and is reused. 8.) Biliverdin and bilirubin are excreted in bile.

Physiologic Jaundice ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

White Blood Cells / Leukocytes ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Diapedesis ,[object Object],[object Object]

Types of WBC’s ,[object Object]

Granulocytes ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Neutrophils ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],The neutrophil has a lobed nucleus with 2-5 components

Eosinophils ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],The eosinophil has red-staining cytoplasmic granules.

Basophils ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],The basophil has cytoplasmic granules that stain deep blue.

Agranulocytes ,[object Object],[object Object]

Monocytes ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],A monocyte may leave the bloodstream and become a macrophage.

Lymphocytes ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],The lymphocyte contains a large, round nucleus.

White Blood Cell Counts (WBCC) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Blood Platelets / Thrombocytes ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Leukemia ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Leukemia and blood cells. A.) Normal blood cells. B.) Blood cells from a person with granulocytic leukemia, a type of myeloid leukemia. Note the increased number of leukocytes.

Myeloid Leukemia ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Lymphoid Leukemia ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Classification ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Treatment ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Blood Plasma ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Functions ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Plasma Proteins ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Albumins ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Edema ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Globulins ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Fibrinogen ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Blood Gases ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Blood Nutrients ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

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Non-protein Nitrogenous Substances ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Plasma Electrolytes ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Hemostasis ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Blood Vessel Spasm ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Platelet Plug Formation ,[object Object],[object Object],Link to animation

Steps in platelet plug formation

Blood Coagulation ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

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A scanning electron micrograph of fibrin threads.

Fibroblasts ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Clots Dissolve with Time ,[object Object],[object Object]

Abnormal Clot Formations ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],Artery cross sections. A.) Light micrograph of a normal artery. B.) The inner wall of this artery changed as a result of atherosclerosis.

Tissue Plasminogen Activators (tPA) ,[object Object]

Coagulation Disorders ,[object Object],[object Object]

Hemophilia ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Von Willebrand Disease ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Blood vessel spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation provide homeostasis following tissue damage.

Blood Groups and Transfusions ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Antigens and Antibodies ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

ABO Blood Group ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Different combinations of antigens and antibodies distinguish blood types. (Cells and antibodies not drawn to scale)

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Agglutination. A.) If RBC’s with antigen A are added to blood containing antibody anti-A, B.) the antibodies react with the antigens, causing clumping (agglutination). C.) Nonagglutinated blood. D.) Agglutinated blood.

Rh Blood Group ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Rh- person recieves transfusion of Rh+ blood ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Rh- woman pregnant with Rh+ fetus ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

If a man who is Rh positive and a woman who is Rh negative conceive a child who is Rh positive, the woman’s body may manufacture antibodies that attack future Rh-positive offspring.

Clinical Terms Related to the Blood

Antihemophilic plasma ,[object Object],Used to temporarily relieve dysfunction of the hemostatic mechanism in hemophilia

Citrated Whole Blood ,[object Object]

Dried plasma ,[object Object],Dried plasma was developed and first used during WWII . Prior to the United States involvement in the war, liquid plasma and whole blood were used. The "Blood for Britain" program during the early 1940s was quite successful (and popular stateside). Nonetheless the decision was made to develop a dried plasma package for the armed forces because it reduced breakage and made transport, packaging, and storage much simpler. [2] The resulting Army-Navy dried plasma package came in two tin cans containing 400 cc bottles. One bottle contained enough distilled water to completely reconstitute the dried plasma contained in the other bottle. In about three minutes, the plasma would be ready to use and could stay fresh for around four hours. [3] By the end of the war the American Red Cross had provided enough blood for over six million plasma packages. Most of the surplus plasma was returned stateside for civilian use. Serum albumin replaced dried plasma for combat use during the Korean War

Hemorrhagic telangiectasia ,[object Object],Patients lose capillary network connects between veins and arteries. Most affected areas are lips, tongue, nasal mucosa, finger tips, lungs, brain, liver, and gastrointestinal tract. Treatments include, iron supplements, laser cautery, antifibrinolytic agents, transfusions

Heparinized whole blood ,[object Object]

Macrocytosis ,[object Object],Larger than 9 micrometers in diameter. Found in folate and B 12 deficiencies and liver disease.

Microcytosis ,[object Object],Smaller than 7 micrometers in diameter. Lymphocyte (blue, 8 micrometers) used as a guide. Found in anemia, thalassaemia, and lead poisoning.

Neutrophilia ,[object Object],Shift or transient neutrophilia is generally a very short-lived condition, often lasting less than sixty minutes. This increase in actively circulating neutrophils is usually associated with vigorous exercise, but can also develop following an injection of epinephrine, a seizure, or an intense emotive response, such as fear or rage. All of the neutrophils in circulation are fully mature since they simply have been transferred from the marginal pool, which in a normal adult is comprised of cells that have already fully developed in the bone marrow. When true neutrophilia occurs, however, some of the neutrophils observed in the blood may be immature forms that were released by the bone marrow before their development was complete due to an insufficient number of mature cells to meet the demands of the body. Typically this excessive demand is related to a bacterial infection, which results in the release of chemoattractants that bind to certain neutrophil receptors and initiate their activity so that they can aid in the body’s immune response.

Packed red cells ,[object Object],Leukocyte depleting filters. Packed red blood cells, the most commonly transfused blood component, can restore the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. This component may be given to a person who is bleeding or who has severe anemia. The red blood cells are separated from the fluid component of the blood (plasma) and from the other cellular and cell-like components. After this step, the red blood cells are concentrated so that they occupy less space, thus the term "packed." Red blood cells can be refrigerated for up to 42 days. In special circumstances—for instance, to preserve a rare type of blood—red blood cells can be frozen for up to 10 years. Transfusing only selected blood components allows the treatment to be specific, reduces the risks of side effects, and can efficiently use the different components from a single unit of blood to treat several people.

Pancytopenia ,[object Object],This peripheral blood picture is from an anemic patient with a low white cell count, and a low platelet count. A reduction in all the formed elements of the blood is called a 'pancytopenia'. It often indicates bone marrow failure (leukemia), but can also occur from peripheral destruction of cells, as in hypersplenism (overactive spleen). Also occurs in people with AIDS.

Poikilocytosis ,[object Object],Lowers blood’s oxygen carrying capacity causing anemia. In all cases, the treatment of poikilocytosis depends on its cause. For example, poikilocytosis can be caused by a vitamin deficiency, in which case the treatment is to take Vitamin B12 or folic acid. It can be caused by a digestive disease, such as celiac disease , in which case the solution may lay in treating the underlying celiac disease so that nutrients can be properly absorbed.

Purpura ,[object Object],Common in typhus and meningitis and in old age when blood vessels damage more easily. Also a symptom of a variety of other disorders.

Septicemia ,[object Object],Septicemia is a serious, life-threatening infection that gets worse very quickly. It can arise from infections throughout the body, including infections in the lungs, abdomen, and urinary tract. It may come before or at the same time as infections of the bone ( osteomyelitis ), central nervous system ( meningitis ), or other tissues. Septicemia can rapidly lead to septic shock and death. Septicemia associated with some organisms (germs) such as meningococci can lead to shock , adrenal collapse, and disseminated intravascular coagulopathy , a condition called Waterhouse- Friderichsen syndrome . Septicemia can begin with spiking fevers and chills, rapid breathing and heart rate, the outward appearance of being seriously ill (toxic) and a feeling of impending doom. These symptoms rapidly progress to shock with decreased body temperature (hypothermia), falling blood pressure, confusion or other changes in mental status, and blood-clotting abnormalities evidenced by a specific type of red spots on the skin (petechiae and ecchymosis). The Pope died from septic shock April 2005

Spherocytosis ,[object Object],[object Object],Though the spherocytes have a smaller surface area through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can be exchanged, they in themselves perform adequately to maintain healthy oxygen supplies. The misshapen but otherwise healthy red blood cells are mistaken by the spleen for old or damaged red blood cells and it thus constantly breaks them down, causing a cycle whereby the body destroys its own blood supply (auto- hemolysis ).

Thalassemia ,[object Object],The genetic defect results in synthesis of an abnormal hemoglobin molecule. The blood cells are vulnerable to mechanical injury and die easily. To survive, many people with thalassemia need blood transfusions at regular intervals.

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