1. +
What factors determine whether a language
eventually becomes a dialect or a totally new
language?
Page 16 (Sixth Edition)
Page 19 (Fifth Edition)

2. + slight separation of one segment of a community from
The
other segments of that same community can result in
_____________, while a *long-term separation of one
segment of a community from another can result
in________________.
1. a new language, a dialect
2. a dialect, a new language

3. +Question for Discussion
What causes segments of a community to separate from
the main community?
1. Social mandates: segregation (Jim Crow), one-child policy
2. Natural disaster: drought, fire, earthquakes
3. Social strife: war, persecution
4. Economic conditions: seeking better jobs, better education, cheaper housing

4. Question for Discussion
+
In terms of language, what importance is there in
understanding the reason(s) that one segment of a
community separates from the main community?

The reason(s) for the separation often explains why a
language developed a certain way lexically, stylistically,
structurally, phonetically, and semantically. Language
does not develop randomly.
 Example: Slavery—the need to hide escape plans from
the master resulted in the metaphorical style of AAVE

5. +Question: Linguistic Connections
Even if one segment of a community separates itself
from the main community and forms a new language,
this new language will/will not retain characteristics of
the old, parentlanguage?
1. will
2. will not
page 15 (sixth edition)
pages 19-20 (fifth edition)

6. +
Parent Language
Because a new language retains
characteristics of the old, parent
language, this means that it is possible to
study English and identify its parent
language, the ancient language from which it
derives.

7. +
Parent Language
A parent language is a language from
which other languages have derived.

8. +
Which of these ancient languages
below is considered to be the ancient
parent language of English?
1. Balto-Slavic
2. Hellenic
3. Indo-European
4. Italic

9. +
Indo-European
Indo-European is the parent language that linguists have
identified as spoken by ancient people who spread into areas
known today as Asia and Europe.

10. +
Indo-European
From the Indo-European language, 11 major language groups
emerged.
(page 18, sixth edition)
(page 23, fifth edition)

11. +
Indo-European Language
Chart

12. +
Besides Indo-European, other
ancient parent languages include
Afro-Asiatic, Sino-Tibetan, and
Niger-Congo

13. + Other ancient parent languages
 Arabic and ancient Hebrew come from the Afro-
Asiatic
 Chinesecomes from the Sino-Tibetan parent
language.
 Swahili comes from the Niger-Congo parent

14. +
The most widely-spoken languages deriving from
the Indo-European parent language are
English, Spanish, and Portuguese.
 Spanish, French, and Portuguese are Romance
languages.

15. + The Indo-European chart indicates
that English derived from what
language-people group?
1. Celtic
2. Balto-Slavic
3. Germanic
4. Hellenic

16. +
Based on the Indo-European chart, when the
Germanic people split, did the Germanic
language become a dialect first or a new
language?
1. Dialect
2. New Language

17. +
From what Germanic-language-
people group did English
derive?
West Germanic

18. +
What is Grimm’s law, and
what connection does
Grimm's law have to the
Indo-European parent
language?

19. +
Grimm'slaw explains how
languages deriving from the
Indo-European parent
language are related

20. +
Grimm's law explains how
English evolved from ancient
times until now.

21. +
Grimm's law outlines the
historical events that led to
the eventual development of
English.

22. +
Grimm's Law
Grimm's law is a theory developed by
linguists that explains how very diverse
languages actually came from the same
ancient parent--Indo-European.

23. +
Grimm's law works by identifying
patterns in diverse languages
and using those patterns to
establish historical connections.

24. +

25. +
The p in the word of a language,
such as Latin, that derives from
the Indo-European family will be
replaced with a f in the equivalent
word of its Germanic relative like
English.

26. +
In Latin, the word Pisces means fish.
Later, in Germanic languages such as
English, the same word is spelled with an f

27. +
Another pattern that John Grimm found
which connects English with its "cousins" in
the Indo-European family involves t and th.

28. +
While some words in Latin will use
t, equivalent words in English will use th.
Latin=tres
English=three

29. + Which group below represents the most widely
spoken languages deriving from the Indo-
European parent language?
1. English, French, and Spanish
2. English, Portuguese, Spanish
3. English, Italian, Spanish
4. English, German, Spanish

30. +
Esperanza Spalding
(Milton Mascimento)
Ponte De Areia

31. +
Learning Languages
In considering ancient parent
languages, what factors go into the ease
with which individuals learn a language?

32. + It is usually easier for individuals to learn

languages that derive from the same ancient
parent language that to learn languages from
different parent languages.
Itis also usually easier “code-
switching.”
Italian and English

33. +

34. +
French

35. +
Indo-European Chart

36. +
What is the definition of a dialect?
1.a new language created from a
standard language
2. a variation of a standard
language

37. +
Smaller communities within a
country create variations or
dialects of a country’s standard
language.

38. +
Standard languages usually develop
over time as “best practices” from
various dialects and languages are
identified.

39. +
The development of a standard
language in France was a little
different.

40. +
The dialect of what area/community within
France eventually became the country’s
standard language?
(page 28, fifth edition)
page 23-24, sixth edition)

41. +
The dialect of northern
France, particularly the dialect spoken
in Paris, resulted in this dialect, rather
than the dialect of southern
France, becoming the country’s
standard language.

42. +
What contributes to a dialect becoming a
country’s standard language?

43. +
Dialects that are spoken in
areas of heavy governmental
activity have a greater chance
of becoming a country’s
standard language.

44. +
When a country lacks a standard
language, like France did during
part of the Middle Ages, what does
this say about the country?

45. +
The more stable a country is, having
a stable, working government, the
more likely it is to have a standard
language.

46. +
When a country is in the beginning stages
of development or redevelopment, lack of
language standardization will exist.

47. +
Italian

48. +
Indo-European Chart

49. +
What makes Italian unique when
compared with other Romance
languages?
(page 25, sixth edition)
(page 29, fifth edition)

50. +
Romance languages such as French,
Spanish, and Portuguese evolved as
a result of migration from the home
city of Rome.

51. +
Italian evolved as a result of
immigration to the home city of
Rome.
As a result, Italian, unlike the other
Romance languages, is closest to
_______?

52. +
Quote: “[Italian] is particularly important
as the language of Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio and as the vernacular
language in which the cultural
achievements [of the Renaissance first
found expression.”
(Page 25, sixth edition)
 (Page 29, fifth edition)
How does this quote explain the prestige
associated with Italian and other
Romance Languages?

53. +
Language achieving its reputation by
its association
What is the reputation of English?

54. +
Old and Modern English:
A Comparison

55. +
What West-Germanic tribes
invaded England?
What made it possible, to a certain
extent, for these tribes to invade
England?

56. +
Language Timeline
Old English: 450 to 1150
Middle English: 1150 to 1500
Modern English: 1500 to today

57. +
In terms of Grammar . . .
Old English, Latin, and the Romance languages are described
as syntheticlanguages.

58. +
In termsof Grammar . . .
Modern English is
described as an analytic
language.
Page 52, sixth edition
Page 56, fifth edition

59. +
Synthetic languages are . . .
said to be highly inflectional. In other words, inflectional elements
are addedonto words, usually the ends of words, to indicate
tense, degree, gender, and *person.

60. +
Analytic languages have . . .
few inflections. Instead of meaning
being created through the addition of
inflectional elements, meaning comes
from word order,prepositions, and
auxiliary (helping) verbs.

61. +
Grammar: Person
Quick Review: Synthetic languages usually add inflectional
elements onto words whereas analytical languages add words
such as prepositions to indicate tense, degree, gender, and
*person.

62. +
In grammar, when we talk about the issue
of "person," we are referring to
1. Gender Concerns
2. The Speaker/Writer' Position
3. Verb Tense

63. +
Person
The position of the writer/speaker
Pronouns: I, you, he/she/it
I (first person)
You (second person)
He/she/it (third person)

64. + Person
The position of the writer/speaker
I(first person)= the writer/speaker is writing
about herself/himself
You (second person)= the writer/speaker is
writing directly to someone
He/she/it (third person)= the writer/speaker is
writing about someone/something

65. +
If you are writing an
autobiography, in what person
are writing?
1. Second Person
2. Third Person
3. First Person

66. + you work for a company and you write a
If
letter to the CEO of another company, you will
probably write that letter in
1. first person
2. second person
3. third person

67. +
Review
Synthetic languages usually add inflectional elements onto
words whereas analytical languages add words such as
prepositions to indicate tense, degree, gender, and *person.

68. +
Inflections
Inflections
are elements that are added to words, usually to the
end of words, in order to add meaning.

69. +
Review
Old English, Latin, and the Romance
languages are described as
syntheticlanguages.
Modern English is described as an
analytic language.

70. +
In modern English, we .. .
use few inflectional elements to indicate that we are moving from
one person to another. In the present tense, we use an inflection
only for third person.

71. +For example, . . .
I live
You live
He/She/It lives
We live
You live
They live

72. +
Because the Romance Language
Spanish is synthetic, different
inflectional elements are added as
there is movement from one
grammatical person to the other.

73. +
Spanish
Yo vivo (I live)
Tuvives (You live)
El vive (He lives)

74. +
Latin is even more inflectional than
the Romance languages.
For example,
Ducam= I will lead.
Du= lead
Cam= I will

75. +
Synthetic languages use fewer words to
express meaning than analytic
languages?
1. True
2. False

76. +
What does this mean in terms of
dictionaries for English compared
with dictionaries for French, for
Spanish?

77. +
English has becomes less inflectional
throughout time.
Old English was much more
inflectional than modern English.

78. +
As an analytic language, modern
English usually creates
meaning, not with inflectional
elements, but by word
order, prepositions, and auxiliary
(helping) verbs.

79. +
For example, the meaning of a
noun in an analytic language is
revealed by its placement or order
in a sentence.

80. + The stone house is impervious to
hurricane-force winds.
In the sentence above, the noun "stone"
is acting as
1. an indirect object
2. an adjective
3. a direct object
4. a possessive

81. + geologist showed the stone to the visiting
The
students.
In the sentence above, the noun "stone" is acting as
1. an indirect object
2. a predicate noun
3. a direct object
4. a possessive

82. + The direct object of a sentence explains what or
whom the subject and action verb of a sentence
are acting upon.
The geologist showed the stone to the visiting students.
(After the action verb, ask "what" or "who")

83. +
He placed a flower on the stone.
In the sentence above, the noun "stone," is acting
as
1. a predicate noun
2. a possessive
3. a direct object
4. an indirect object

84. + indirect object explains who or what
An
receives or is impacted by the direct
object
He placed a flower on the stone.
(Afterthe direct object "flower," ask "what," "where," or
"to whom")

85. + In modern English, the noun "stone" is
spelled the same regardless of whether it is
serving as an adjective, direct object, indirect
object, or some other part of speech.
In other words, the placement of the noun in
the sentence, not the spelling of the
noun, determines its grammatical role.

86. +In Old English, the noun "stone" has a
different spelling depending on how it is
being used.
Direct object (Accusative Case): "stan"
Indirect Object (Dative Case): "stan-e”
Page 53, sixth edition

87. +
Verbs
In the movement from Old English to modern
English, not only have nouns become less
inflectional, so too have verbs.

88. +
Quick Review:What does it mean
fora language to be highly
inflectional?
1.Meaning is created by word order, auxiliary words, and
prepositions
2.Meaning is created by adding elements to a word, usually the
end of words

89. + In grammar, verbs are described as being
either
1. strong (irregular)
2. weak (regular)

90. +
In modern English, most verbs are weak
(regular)

91. + Weak verbs (regular) have the same "-
ed" ending in the past tense and the past
participle.
Verb: to play
Present Tense: I play
Past Tense:I played
Past Participle: I have played

92. +
Unlike weak verbs(regular), strong verbs
(irregular) change form as they move
from past tense to past participle.
Verb: to drive
Present Tense: I drive
Past Tense: I drove
Past Participle: I have driven

93. +
Is the verb "to help" a strong verb or
a weak verb?
1. Strong
2. Weak

94. +
Most verbs that were strong in Old English
have become weak in modern English.
Verb: to Help (Helpan)
Present Tense: I help (healp)
Past Tense: I helped (hulpon)
Past Participle: I have helped (holpen)

95. +
Some strong verbs in old English remain
strong in modern English.
Verb: to Drive (Drifan)
Present Tense: I drive (draf)
Past Tense: I drove (drifon)
Past Participle: I have driven ( drifen)

96. +
Is the verb "to awake" a strong
verb or a weak verb?
1. Weak
2. Strong

97. + Some strong verbs in modern English are
transitioning.
Verb: to awake
Present Tense: I awake
Past Tense: I awoke (awaked)
PastParticiple: I have awaken (have
awaked)

98. +Another transitioning strong verb
Verb: to dive
Present Tense: I dive
Past Tense: I dove (dived)
Past Participle: I have dived
The past participle is weak already, but the past tense is
transitioning.

99. +
One last example of a transitioning strong verb.
Verb: to dream
Present Tense: I dream
Past Tense: I dreamt (dreamed)
Past Participle: I have dreamt (have dreamed)

100. +
Old English Literature, and Culture

101. +
English in all of its forms—Old, Middle,
and Modern—comes from the dialects
of the Germanic tribes that invaded
England.
Pages 46-47, sixth edition
Pages 50-52, fifth edition

102. +
However, in 1066, a Scandinavian
group known as Normans invaded
England
The Normans spoke French; thus,
French and English co-existed
initially and eventually were
combined.

103. +
How language (Old English) is
studied

104. + Question
What is the difference between studying language by examining
historical or politicalrecords versus analyzing language via literature?

105. +
Unlike historical or political records, . . .
literature provides an even better view of a
language's power because literature uses
figurative language, which requires the most
skillful use of lexicon.

106. +
Figurative Language?

107. +
Figurative language is the use of metaphors and
similes that make direct or indirect comparisons that
are meant to be taken imaginatively, not literally.
Figurative language must be distinguished from
literal language.

108. +
Which of these is a figurative
expression?
1. He ran down the street fast.
2. He ran like a hare down the street.

109. +
In studying Old English,
linguists often prefer to examine literature--
writing that uses figurative language--even more
than historical or political documents because
literature represents the use of language at its
highest skill language.

110. +
Not only does literature highlight the skillful
use of a language's lexicon, . . .
it reveals also the cultural, philosophical, and
religious concerns of a community; it can
highlight environmental uniqueness of a time or
place.

111. +
Old English Literature
What is the most famous piece
of Old English literature?

112. +

113. +
Modern English translation of Beowulf
What does the modern translation of
Beowulf reveal about the cultural,
philosophical, and religious concerns of Old
English life?
Origins of world?
Roots of success?
Nature of Evil?
Basic/Central Battle?

114. +
Old English vs. Middle and Modern
English

115. +
Middle English, the
Renaissance, Modern English
The Printing Press, Popular Education, Orthography, and
Dictionaries

116. + English has modernized, moving from
As
old English to middle English, its changes
have dictated by the operationof analogy.
(Read Chapter 7 as well)
Page 154, sixth edition
Page 159, fifth edition

117. +
The Operation of Analogy
The process by which words and phrases
are created or reformed according to
existing patterns in language.

118. + Verbs
The operation of analogy explains why many
verbs have moved from strong to weak.
The pattern is to add -ed to the past tense and
the past participle; therefore, many verbs are
reformed according to this pattern.

119. +
Another pattern involves creating
verbs from nouns by adding the
suffix"ize."
For example
Winter--Winterize
Recognition--Recognize
Authority--Authorize