1. PSYCHOLOGICA
fr, -1 ~I ( f(::' .-........ v
BEING
NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS
ON
Christian Wolf's Psychologia Empirica
BY
EMANUELSWEDENBORG
TRANSLATED FROM THE PHOTOLITHOGRAPHED MANUSCRIPT
BY
ALFRED ACTON, M.A., B.Th.
DEAN OF THE mEOLOGICAL SCHOOL OF THE ACADEMY
OF THE NEW CHURCH
SWEDENBORG SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION
PHILADELPHIA, PA.
19 2 3

4. PREFACE
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
CONTENTS.
Nos.
BY THE TRANSLATOR.
Is GOD A SPIRIT? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
THE EXISTENCE OF THE HUMAN SOUL.
Wolff's Rules.... . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
How TO ACQUIRE A KNOWLEDGE OF THE
SOUL............................... 3-8
THE FORMAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PER­
CEPTIONS , . 9-14
OBSERVANDA. [Diversities of Tremulations.]
How the membranes seem to be effigied.
The tremors in the tunics. The forma­
tions of the tremulations . 15-20
SENSATION . 21-41
IMAGINATION . 42-71
SLEEP AND DREAMING . 72-86
THE FACULTY OF PICTURING . 87-105
THE MEMORy . 106-132
ATTENTION AND REFLECTION . 133-142
THE INTELLECT AND COGNITION . 143-144
THE THREE OPERATIONS OF THE INTELLECT 145-150
NATURAL DISPOSITIONS AND HABITS OF THE
INTELLECT . 151-158
PLEASURE AND VVEARINESS . 159-164
SENSITIVE ApPETITE AND SENSITIVE AVER­
SION 165
AFFECTIONS 166-194
THE WILL 195-199
THE WILL AND ITS DETERMINATIONS 200-208
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE SOUL. THE
SOUL AFTER DEATH 209-216
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PARTICLES. . . . . . . . . . 217
THE MEMBRANES 218-226
[NATURE IS MECHANICAL]............... 227
iii

5. CONTENTS.
XXIV. THE MEMBRANES ......................• 22~230
XXV. [CONCERNING PHILOSOPHy]............... 231
XXVI. FAITH IN CHRIST. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
ApPENDIX. EMINENT GENERATION.
SUBJECT INDEX.
iv

6. Preface.
Some three or four months ago, Professor E. E. IUNGERICH
brought to the present writer a draft translation into English of
pp. 159-206 of the third volume of the Swedenborg photo-
lithographed MSS:--The writing contained in these pages had
not been given any title by the author, but in the photolitho-
graphed volume Dr. R. L. Tafel had supplied the title" A
Comparison of the Systems of Christian Wolff and Sweden-
borg "; for which, Pro£. Iungerich had substituted as being
more descriptive, the title "A Psychology of Tremulations
based on the Apothegms of Chr. Wolff." Neither of these
titles seemed satisfactory. The first involves a systematic com-
parison of the whole of Wolff's philosophy with the philosophy
of Swedenborg, whereas the work itself consists merely of notes
made on various points in lIIolff's PSYCHOLOGIA EMPIRICA in-
terspersed with sundry observations. The second title, while
indeed descriptive, seems to involve that the work was written
as a set treatise, whereas on the face of it, it is ~othing mo:.-e
than notes written during the course of --!".-e~ding. We have
preferred therefore the title " Psychologica" or Psychological
Notes. .~ -- --
-After hearing a brief description of the work from Prof.
IUNGERICH, it needed but a glance at his draft translation to
convince the writer of these lines, as to the importance of the
work in question; and the matter of its publication was at once
brought up before the Directors of the Swedenborg Scientific
Association, with the result that Mr. HAROLD F. PITCAIRN gen-
erously offered to defray the cost of printing.
Pro£. IUNGERICH'S translation was not in shape to be pub-
lished. Indeed it became clear that considerable research would
be necessary before a finished translation could be undertaken;
and even with this, it was clear that in many places the trans-
lator would be obliged to become more or less of an interpre-
ter. As soon as this became evident, it was suggested that in
v

7. PREFACE.
justice both to the translator and to the reader the Latin text
of the work should be published at the same time as the English
translation; and we record, with great appreciation, that Mr.
HAROLD F. PITCAIRN at once extended his offer to cover this
additional printing.
The new translation which was then commenced by the pres­
ent writer was made from the photolithographed manuscript
direct, but based on Prof. IUNGERICH'S draft translation. The
changes, however, have been so numerous and far-reaching,
that the work is really a new translation, and for it the trans­
lator alone must be held responsible. At the same time grate­
ful acknowledgment is made for many suggestions supplied by
Pro£. Iungerich's translation.
The PSYCHOLOGICA was evidently written by the author for
his own use; consequently the language is frequently so ellipti­
cal as to be obscure. The translator, therefore, had. two
choices; either he could translate the work with exact literal­
ness; or he could supply more or less of interpretation wherever
the text does not make the author's meaning c1ear,-as for in­
stance in the numerous cases where it is not clear what specifi­
cally is the subject or object of the verb.
The objection to the first method is that a literal translation
would be far more obscure than the original Latin; for the
English language does not have genders like the Latin, and does
not always show by the form of the verb whether the subject
is singular or plural. It is on this plan that Pro£. Iungerich's
translation was made. To our mind, the second plan is to be
preferred, and this, therefore, we have adopted. Any possible
objections which may be made to it are almost entirely obviated
by the publication of the Latin text.
The Latin text is in places extremely difficult to read. Pro£.
IUNGERICH hilmade a transcript befo~~preparing his transla­
tion, and in making the present translation, an independent
transcript was also made. This latter Pro£. IUNGERICH very
kindly compared with his own and supplied valuable suggestions.
In view of this revision by so competent a scholar, the reader
may be assured of the correctness, so far as possible, of the
readings presented in the printed text.
vi

8. PREFACE.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to Pro£. C. E. DOERING
who has given considerable assistance in connection with the
diagram in n. 17. Swedenborg's explanation of this diagram
presents some difficulty; but after considerable research, Pro£.
DOERING found that by a slight alteration in the letters referring
to the diagram, Swedenborg's conclusion was fully established.
It seems clear, as suggested by Pro£. DOERING, that Swedenborg
made a slip in writing C and E for A and A. Pro£. DOERING
also informs us that the proposition based on this diagram seems
to be original with Swedenborg, for no such proposition is to
be found in any of the very numerous works on Mathematics
which the Professor has consulted in the course of his studies.
Acknowledgment is also made to Mr. WINFRED S. HYATT,
for his kindness in executing the interpretations of Sweden-
borg's diagrams.
To Pro£. Iungerich's translation, which covered pp. 102-136
of the photolithographed MS., we have added pp. 137-140.
These latter pages do not concern Wolff's PSYCHOLOGICA EM-
PIRICA, but the same is true also of the four preceding pages.
In any case, it is clear that the pages now added belong to the
same series of writings.
We have also added an appendix consisting of a short piece
entitled" Eminent Generation," which has been translated from
the sixth volume of the photolithographed MSS., p. 311. It
was written some six or seven years after the PSYCHOLOGICA,
and is inserted as an appendix to the present work partly as
.furnishing some indication as to Swedenborg's literary plans,
and partly because it has not hitherto appeared in print. The
original title supplied by the author was" Eminent Generation,
or the Generation of the Spirituous Fluid." This he altered to
" Eminent Generation."
The editing of the present volume has consisted in supplying
an index, in adding a few explanatory footnotes and in giving
references to other of Swedenborg's writings. The giving of
references is somewhat unusual but seems useful in the present
case as supplying means to the student to elucidate or more
fully understand the author's meaning. The editor has also
supplied all the paragraph numbers printed in black letter, and
vii

9. PREFACE.
in one or two cases he has subdivided paragraphs (though with­
out numbering them) ; this seemed useful for greater ease in
reading and study.
THE PSYCHOLOGICA AND, CODEXJ~.8.
The manuscript here translated is contained in codex 88 of
the Swedenborg MSS. preserved in-the Library of the Royal
Academy of Sciences of Sweden, where it occupies pp. 159-206/ ' :'
of the codex. For the most parte codex 88)s a commonplace
b29.k wherein Swedenborg entered "{rom ,!ayjoj.ay:_his j~l!~':I:al
of travels. From da¥ to day also, and thus between the entries
of the journal, he wrote various draft paragraphs to be incor­
porated in the first chapter of his PRINCIPIA, notes on works he
was reading, and observations on various mining operations
which had engaged his attention.
Pages 3-7 of the codex, which were the first pages to be
written on, contain a little treatise entitled " A General Treat­
ment of the Motion of the Element." * This work was written
in Stockholm and probably in April 1733; for immediately fol­
lowing it, on p. 8, Swedenborg commences his journal of travels,
beginning with the statement thatheIeftStockholm-on May
10th. This part of the journal extends from pages 8 to 39,
and contains entries from May 10th to July 15th. From it we
learn that on June 7th Swedenborg arrived in Dresden, where
he stayed for some time. Here, from June 14th to the 19th,
he devoted himself to reading and correcting his PRINCIPIA in
preparation for its publication.
The special object of his journey to the continent on this
occasion, was the publication of the OPERA MINERALOGICA, of
~hich th.e PRINCIPIA ~onst}j:utes vOlumel This' ';orkhad been
written in Sweden prior to the commencement of Swedenborg's
journey, and, as far at any rate as the PRINCIPIA is concerned,
the author specifically states that he had completed it two years
before it was printed, that is to say, in 1731.t It should be
, ---..,
-.:..:> ( *Translated in I Scientific and) four volumes, or else to have been
,,-Philos?~hical Treatises, pp. 99-1QS.j divided into four "tomes," for on
--rrIie 'original MS. of the p. 57 of(todex 8§,_ in a note" On
PRINCIPIA appears to have filled the Orde; of the Particle" the
viii

10. PREFACE.
noted, however, that the first draft of the PRINCIPIA did not
~. include what is now known as Chapter 1 on "The Means Con-
~ucing to a True Philosophy" but that Chapter 2 of the pub-
lished work was originally Chapter 1 of the draft, and so forth.
A less immediate object of Swedenborg's journey, though not
a less important, was to learn about and study the numerous
learned works which were daily appearing on the Conffnentand
;1i1Cli in 'Sweden, at that time, were difficult to pr~~ure. And
when we consider Swedenborg's intense thir~ for knowledge,
we can well understand the eagerness with which he searched
for new works, and the avidity with which he read and studied
them. Indeed his journal contains many extracts from the
works which he came across in the course of his travels, besides
innumerable notes of works of which he had heard or read.
On July 10th he notes that at the house of a friend, he had
seen, for the first time, a copy of Wolff's COSMOLOGIA GEN-
ERALIS, a work in which "the author has endeavored to estab-
lish elementary nature from 'purely metaphysical principles."
Swedenborg evidently procured a copyof this work,* and de-
voted some of his time at Dresden to studying it.. ,
The journal for July 15th, 1733, ends on p. 39 of(codex 88:
On the following pages (40-46) are contained sundry draft
notes for" My Preface to the Principia." After some short
jou'~'nal entries dated July 21st to 23rd, at which latter date
Swedenborg arrived in Prague, these ~raft notes are continued
from p. 50 to p. 57. Several paragraphs of th.ese~r~ts were
subsequently incorporated verbatim et literatim in Chapter 1 of
) the PRINCIPIA on "The Means Conducing to a True Philos-
, ~p~y."
It appears therefore, as noted above, that at this time what
is now the first chapter of the printed PRINCIPIA was either not
written, or was not in complete form. It also appears that this
author states that "what has been Phil. Tr., p. 124). The printed
said about vortical motion and the PRINCIPIA is divided into three
first obstruction of the sun and parts.
the dispersal of its crust should *The Cosmologia is entered in
be adduced from the fourth tome the Auctioneer's catalog of Swe-
of the Principia" (I Scient. & denborg's library.
ix

11. PREFACE.
chapter was originally intended as the Preface or Introduction
to the work, and that what is now Chapter 2 was Chapter 1 of
the draft which the aut~rcarried -with him from Swede'O.
This is-further confirmed by one of the draft paragraphs in­
tended for the PRINCIPIA. This paragrapllis entitled" Con­
cerning the Active of indefinite Celerity arising from the Point."
Here Swedenborg observes" This should be inserted at the end
of the fourth particle." The words" at the end of the fourth
particle" would seem to indicate at the end of the chapter which
treats of the fourth particle; or it may be that the word " par­
ticle " is a misprint for" article" ; for we firnCihat°tiielrlsertlOn
° r-eferred to is actually' made at the end of Chapter 5 of the
, printed PRINCIPIA, whi~~ccording to our argumen~'wouldbe
~hapter 4 of t~e first draft. -
Among these PRI!'1SI~._notes, occurs a paragraph headed
"A Comparison of Wolff's Cosmologia Generalis with our
Principia." A part of this note is incorporated in the" Ap­
pendix to the Principia," p. 452,* and it is in this connection
that Swedenborg states that his PRINCIPIA was written "two
years" before he saw Wolff's Cosmologia, that is to say, two
years prior to July 10th, 1733.
It should here be noted that these draft notes for the PRIN­- - .._---­
CIP.!:, and also the first chapter of that work (into which some
of the notes were afterwards incorporated), deal largely with
the question of the operation of th~ elements on the membr~es
of the human body,-a subject which, as shown by the present
;-ork, a~d by other contents ofGO~ex ~") largely occupied
Swedenborg's attention at this time, but which is not dealt with
at all in the PRINCIPIA itself. This fact is of considerable sig­
nificance as indicating the connection, which was already clearly
defined in Swedenborg's mind, between the theory of the e1e­
-0 ments and the doctrine concerning the soul and its operations
2 - into and in the body.---- - --­
A brief journal entry at the end of the draft notes for the
PRINCIPIA, on p. 57, states that on July 29th Swedenborg went
to Carlsbad. Here he makes some further notes for the PRIN­
*The page references contained in this Preface refer to Latin edi­
tions.
x

12. --
PREFACE.
CIPIA, which are contained on p. 58 of:codexJ~8~and which were
included in Chapter 1 of the printed work. He then continues
his journal from pp. 59-86, describing his visits to various min­
ing towns, and his return to Carlsbad on August 13th. Here
he remained for five days, during which he wrote, on pp. 86-88,
a paragraph comparing nature to a spider's web, which was later
printed verbatim et literatim in Chapter 1 oC,theyRINcIPIA.*
Following this paragraph, pp. 89-115 of (codex 88)contain
nothing but journal entries, including notes oncopp~smelting
and gold mining, one of which was subsequently incorporated
in the second volume (De Cupro) of the OPERA MINERALOGICA.
On August 25th he returned to Dr~en, and on September 4th
he arrived at Leip~ig. The last entry in the journal for 1733
is dated October 5th, on which day, as Swedenborg notes, he
began the printing of his PRINCIPIA.
--. Then, commencing with p. 116, come fifteen pages of a work
on "The Mechanism of the Soul and the Body," t the main
subject of which is the mode whereby sensations are convey~d
,to .~he_~ul, namely by means of membranous tremulatlOns.
This is followed by twenty-one pages of excerpts on the subject
of Generation, and five pages of anatomical observations :j: end­
ing with p. 157.
Page 158 is blank; and fro~. 152ommences the work, the
translation of which is containedin the present volume. This
ends on p. 213, with the paragraph "Concerning Faith in
Christ.,,',-
Following this, on p. 214, comes an entry in the journal dated
March 1st, 1734, to the effect that on that date Swedenborg
journeyed to Halle.
It is evident therefore that the PSYCHOLOGICA was wri~ten_in
Leipzig, between the 5th October 1733 and the 1st March,1734.
Now·on the 5th October Sw~de~bo~g c~~e~ed printingthe
three folios of his OPERA MINERALOGICA; and, as indicated by
the evidence adduced above, it was doubtless at this time that
*All the draft notes for the t Translated in I Scient. & Phil.
PRINCIPIA referred to in this Pref· Tr., pp. 13-32. _.
Ice are translated into English in I :j: Translated in I Scient. & PJiil,
S'cient. & Phil. Tr., pp. 107-125. Tr., pp. 35-42.. .~
Xl

13. PREFACE.
he wrote out for the press that meEIoraple first chaplet ofJ~e
PRINCIPIA entitled "The Means conducing to a True Philos­, . - -'
ophy." Allowing for the time taken while he was thus en­
gaged; allowing also for the writing of the MECHANISM OF THE
SOUL AND THE BODY, for the copying of the excerpts on Gen­
eration, and the composing of the Anatomical Observations, it
is probable.!..hat th.e..P--S:X<2.HOL<:lGICA was wr~!~en in J~.!1~!y a?~
Febr_uary of 1734. --- -­
--In any event it is clear that at the end of 1733 or the begin­
ning of 1734, Swedenborg came across Wolff's PSYCHOLOGIA
EMPIRICA, which was published in Leipzig and Balle at the end
of 1732 *and which Swedenborg had never before seen._ Being
a great admirer of Wolff, Swedenborg seems to have entered
into a careful study of this work; and it was in the course of
) this study, that he wrote the notes now published. These notes
embody and further amplify Swedenborg's doctrine with respect
to the intercourse between the soul and the body, especially as
related to his PRINCIPIA theory. Be had already written on
this subject in Sweden, before commencing his journey, his
thoughts being set forth in the little work on "The Motion of
the Elements." The theory there expounded he had further
elaborated in the course of his journal, in his drafts of Chapter
1 of the PRINCIPIA, in his finished copy of the chapter itself,
in the treatise on "The Mechanism of the Soul and the Body,"
as contained on pp. 116-130 of(fodex_?8>and in the work on
the INFINITE, which was published simultaneously with the
PRINCIPIA.
For the greater clearness of the reader, we present below the
contents of, codex 88"in the form of a table:
"--.
Pages of codex 88.
1-2 Sundry notes (written after 1740).t
3-7 The Motion of the Elements (written in Stockholm).
8-39 Journal, May 10th to July 15th, 1733.
Leaves Stockholm May 10th; arrives Dresden June 7th.
*Hist. des Wolffischen Phi!. by was finished on December 27th,
C. G. Ludivici, Leipzig, 1738, p. 67. 1739; also some anatomical notes.
t P. 1 is the first cover page. It The page facing it (p. 1 proper)
contains the statement that the contains drafts of the title page of
Economy of the Animal Kingdom the Economy.
xii

14. PREFACE.
June 14th to 15th, prepares PRINCIPIA for press.
July 10th, sees Wolff's COSMOLOGIA.
40-49 Principia notes and Journal to July 23rd.
Arrives at Prague July 23rd.
49-57 Principia notes and Journal to July 30th.
Arrives at Carlsbad July 29th.
58 Principia notes.
58-86 Journal, August 6th to August 13th.
Describes journeys to mining towns.
Returns to Carlsbad on August 13th.
86-88 Principia notes.
88-115 Journal, August 16th to October 5th.
Arrives in Leipzig September 4th.
Commences printing of PRINCIPIA October 5th.
116-130 Mechanism of Soul and Body.
131-157 Anatomical Excerpts and Observations.
158 Blank.
159-213 Notes on Wolff's PSYCHOLOGIA EMPIRICA (the present work).
214-215 Journal, March 1st to 4th, 1734.
Leaves Leipzig for Halle March 1st.
216-236 Anatomical Excerpts.
237-276 Abstract of Principia.*
The rest of the codex, to p. 713, is filled with various philosophical and
anatomical excerpts.
THE PLACE OF THE PSYCHOLOGICA IN THE SERIES OF
SWEDENBORG'S WORKS.
While in Leipzig, Swedenborg published also a " Prodomus,
or introduction concerning the Infinite," part 2 of which deals
with the intercourse between the soul and the body. Whether
this work was written in Leipzig or whether it was completed,
at any rate in first draft, before Swedenborg left Stockholm, is
not clear.
As indicating that it was written prior to the printing of the
PRINCIPIA, we note that on p. 224 t Swedenborg refers to "my
Principia concerning the elementary world"; and he adds: "I
wish to quote therefrom only the following words: ' !f. an~e­
ment comes into existepce it must most certainly be fluid, so as
t~bie tOlfow-with the utmost aptne~-; no£.. ~an iLflQ1L!n
* An English translation of this Swedenborg Scientific Association.
Abstract was published by the t Latin edition, London 1886.
xiii

15. PREFACE.
/.
.....
(
4..
this way unless each particle becomes fluid, so that each single
particle contributes to the moti~';;--~w~~le,'" etc. These
words appear to have been taken fromthe first dr<!ft; for though
we have made the most diligent search, we can find no such
words in the printed PRINCIPIA.
On the other hand, later on in the INFINITE (p. 263), the
author's references to Chapters 5 and 7 of the PRINCIPIA are
clearly to the printed work. Moreover, certain aspects of the
work on the INFINITE appear clearly to indicate that it was
written during the course of Swedenborg's travels in 1733. We
refer particularly to t~ote of sadness sound~d here and there,
at the contemplation of the prevalence _01 ~~heism. We find
the same note in the MECHANISM OF THE SOUL AND BODY and
also in the present work.* Indeed the work on the INFINITE
appears to be specially addressed to the unbelieving philosopher.
Again, we have the fact that the MECHANISM OF THE SOUL... - .- ----,...------.
ANp~ODY, the first chapter of the PRINCIPIA, and the PSYCHO­
LOGICA,-undoubtedly written about the same period, namely in
Leipzig between September 1733 and the end of February 1734,
have a common peculiarity that distinguishes them from all
others of Swedenborg's writings, except the INFINITE, namely,
the use of the word " simile" as a noun and-;ith-a particular
psychological meaning. However, the time when the INFINITE
was written, whether prior to Swedenborg's journey com­
menced in May 1733, or during the journey, cannot be decided
with any degree of certainty.
It does seem clear, however, that the PSYCHOLOGICA was
written after the INFINITE. It is indeed true that one or two
passages in the former work are very similar to passages in the
INFINITE; yet we observe that the same similarity exists in the
case of the PSYCHOLOGICA and the MECHANISM BETWEEN THE
SOUL AND THE BODY, which latter work was undoubtedly the
earlier of the two. Moreover, several facts seem clearly to indi­
cate that the PSYCHOLOGICA was written after the INFINITE,
and that it constitutes a preliminary essay in preparation for
that work, of which the INFINITE was the "~~Q<:1(nn..11_~~~?r
*See Psychological Transactions Preface p. xiii.
xiv

16. PREFACE.
!orerunner. This leads us to a consideration of the develop­
ment of the psychological theory outlined in the work now
published.
THE COSMOLOGICAL WORKS AND THE PHYSIOLOGICAL.
Early students of Swedenborg have doubtless observed the
apparent gap between the PRINCIPIA and the physiological
1 __ works. In the one the elements of the universe are considered;
2. - in the other, the bloods of the _b5?dy and tne operation of the
soul into the body. But the -connection between these two
series, namely the operations of the elements upon th;bfo;ds,
wasonly obscurely understood. It appeared as if Swedenborg
had not written anything to fill the gap between his two series
of works. Something of a connection between them i~ed
supplied by the INFINITE, where on p. 263 Swedenborg indicates
that the soul consists of the first and second actives of his PRIN­
CIPIA. But this rather whetted than satisfied the appetite of
the student. In 1904, however, further light was thrown on
this matter when the SWEDENBORG SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION
published the little work from(codex 88entitled "A general
treatment of the Motion of the---Elements." * In this work,
'" - Swedenborg shows that the elements of the un}~erse operate
2. - upon the membranes of the body and there produce undulations
and tremulations. The con~ection between his two serie~-!?f
works was made still clearer by the publication of the " Mech­
anism of the Soul and Body" t where our author enters more
fully into the effects of the ele~ents upon human membranes,
and where he specifically connects his PRINCIPIA theory with
his doctrine of the intercourse between the soul and the body.
And now, with the appearance of the PSYCHOLOGICA, the
student is offered the means of entering still more fully into ~
'" ~ ~gerstanding of the co~nection between the elements or bloous
1 ~ of_ the universe and the blQods or_ekments of the huma~~dy.
A study of Swedenborg's philosophical writings leads us to
conclude that this connection was in general clearly present in
~~s mind long before the writing of the PRINCIPIA. Ind~
*In I Scient. & Phil. Tr. pp. 99 t 11 ibid. pp. 13 seq.
seq.
xv

17. PREFACE.
this is specifically indicated in the INFINITE (p. 268) where in
speaking of a work which he proposes to write on the subject
of the soul, its motion, geometry and mechanism, he adds that
in this work he will set forth" how far I have already advanced
in this enquiry."
The first indication of Swedenborg's specific doctrine respect­
ing the soul and its mechanism is contained in the little work
on TREMuLATION, written in 1719. Here Swedenborg advances
the doctrine that all sensations, whether internal or external, are
nothing but the perceptions by the soul of tremulations in mem­
b.ran.es. Here also he indicates, what he so often insists~-;in
his PRINCIPIA and later works, that all nature, even the most
occult, is mechanical and geometrical; that perception, imagina­
tion, memory, sensation, all are to be explained geometrically by
the tremulations of membra~es-:--By thisdoctrine as set forth
in TRE;~~~TIoN"he explains sympathy and antipathy, and also
what is now called thought.!ransfe~~~ce; ascribing these to mo­
tions transmitted to the elements from one person and received
by the subtle membranes of another. - ­
- In-pr~paring the TREMULATION, Swedenborg entered into a
very thorough study of anatomy or, to quote his own words as
contained in a letter written to his brother-in-law, Dr. Benze1ius,
in November 1719, where he refers to the work on TREMuLA­
TION as " A little anatomy of our vital forces": " For the pur­
pose of writing this work I have made myself thoroughly ac­
q~ted with the anatomy~the_nerves and membranes, and
I have proved t.h~--futrmony which exists between that and the
interesting geometry of tremulations; togethe~-~ith many other
ideas, where I have found that I agree with those of Baglivi"
(I Doe. c. Swed. p. 310).*
There are many evidences of Swedenborg's intense study of
anatomy and of his remarkable familiarity with the most minute
det~ls of. the hu~~n__body; but it is not generally kn~~~ that
these studies commenced so early as prior to 1719. In addition
to the TREMuLAmN, there are other evidencesof Swedenborg's
early anatomical studies, studies which appear to have been
*Baglivi's work, De Fibra M0- Swedenborg and he frequently
trice, was very closely studied by quotes from it in his later works.
xvi

18. PREFACE.
closely followed up in the years following 1719. Chapter 1 of
the PRINCIPIA on "The Means conducing to a True Philos­
ophy" is full of reference.:>~dicatingthe most exact anatom~<:al
k~~~!~dge; and such knowledgeis quite"'clearly indicated in the
work on the INFINITE.
After writing TREMULATION, however, Swedenborg appears
to have come to the conclusion that it would be vain for him to
follow up this subject until he had first developed '!_the~rY.'--?-f
t~ u!1i~~!se. He therefore bent his efforts to a study of chem­
istry and of the mineral kingdom; and finally these studies and
researches culminated in the writing of the PRINCIPIA, pub­
lished in 1734.
In the INFINITE, which was published in the same year,
Swedenborg specifically states his reason for presenting the
t:
doctrine of the elements before turning to the full presentation
<:. of the do~tEin~-~,Cth~oul and its intercourse with the body,
of which he had treated in a preliminary way in the little work
.- on TREMULATION. "Unless the theory of the elements be pre­
mised (he says) we would labo~ vain t~~t;)a knowledge
- of t1~~~, ,ope,rati~ns in human.Ji.fe" (p. 235); that is to say,
unless the PRINCIPIA precede, the physiological and psychologi­
cal works could never follow.
The work on the INFINITE however, although written as an
exposition of psychological principles, was professedly" a fore­
runner," and, as shown in the work itself, <;to forerunner to a
contemplated treatise which was to show mechanically anddem­
onstrate geometrically the intercourse of soul and body. The
doctrines which Swedenborg proposed to demonstrate in this
intended work were already present in his mirld, before he had
written the PRINCIPIA, but they could not be presented until the
" theory of the elem~:~ts had first been premised."
In the INFINITE, or forerunner of this proposed work, Swe­
denborg several times refers to " the work itself" (p. 192).
On p. 247 he says: "Of themselves the membranes of the
body are nothing but merely passive; but' they are so formed
that they can receive the motion of elementary parts and be
actuated into imitation thereof. Hence by means of the ele­
~~nts a like modulation is spread in a moment throughout the
xvii
2

19. PREFACE.
-1­
z
,'1
whole body, so that th~ tremulous or undulatory motio~0n the
enclosed elements are the verimost animal spirits which are said
to act i~ Obedience to the willing sour Btitof these ~atters
~e shall treat b~-tter-i~-a' speaal the~ry; here I could present
only a confused and general idea of this operation."
On p. 251, after speaking of the necessity of membranes be­
ing harmoniously adapted by use and cultivation to p-~uce
distinct~ffects; andConsequently of there being ~t1~essioIl..Q.f
fi~._~nd finer membranes for the reception and representation
~f vib~atiOns, he continues: "but all these particulars will be
fully deduced and geometrically demonstrated in a special
theory. I wish here only to present a general idea, by help
whereof, others, more penetrating than I, may perhaps more
deeply investigate the operations of the elements upon the mem­
br~~es, and of the me~branest.i:pon-the elements." -- . _...._­
On p. 266 he says: " In brutes the soul is much more gross
than the human soul. It is an elementary, not consisting of
actives, which latter constitute the actuality of reason; but in
place of actives the soul of brutes is an elementary something.
In a special exposition on this subject, I wish to confirm this
proposition with a great many arguments which perhaps are not
as yet well known."
On pp. 267-268 he again repeats his intention of writing on
this subject. "If we suppose the actuality of .!4~-2Q...ul to con­
sist in motion and in a force highly mechanical, while its surface
consists in a figure highly geometrically; and if the mind will
tht;n examine all things which experience can present to it for
ex~ation,that i;to s~y~he anato~y of the human body, the
parts of all the extern.<J:L senses and all the modes and faculties
which can be knownand distinguished in the iinagination~I!!­
!!..ry, perc<:E!~n and__will, and the varieties and difference~ of
them all as arising from divers affections and other causes, and
~J;ly-oth~LJhings which~re 'tcibe-;pecially scrutinized and
compared, then at last something certain can be concluded con­
cerning the true geometry and mechanism of this most perfect
entity. As to how far I h;:tve advanced in this enquiry, it is my
intention 1;;-'present this in detail, if G.od· grant me life and
leisure. Here in-general, I think that nothing can be presented
xviii

20. PREFACE.
as affirmative and positive; for e?Cper~~ce and geometry are the
only things which must affirm and establish. And when experi­
ence and geometry have done this, then by consent of the soul
we shall have the rationale of the subject. The principal_end
of this. pre>p.9.sed wo~k is that th;immClrtality of the soul may
be demonstrated before the very senses."
On p. 192 he enters into further detail as the character of his
proposed work to which the INFINITE was the forerunner.
After noting the objection to his doctrine concerning the soul,
namely, that if it were subject to mechanical rules, it would be
material and perishable, and not spiritual and imm~tal; and
after showing, that such an objection could arise only from a
(" gross conception of the "purer mechanism" of the more per­
fect world in which the soul lives, and the destructi~;£~hICh
----------- ----- . --- -'._'~'
) would involve the annihilation of the whole created univ~rse, he-,' _._--~-
. ' ~.~
continues: "But what need is there of words? In the work
I itself, so far as possible, I desire to demonstrate this to the eye,
namely, that the soul is perfectly and purely mechanical; that
) the soul i~L~~!,1g!1al; and that it ~~nnot per~h, unks.s_the un}­
verse be annihilated; likewise, that the soul is so created and
{ formed, that it co~mencesto live in the'body, an4 that it knows
n2,Ulyi~; ancl"ihai-it is naturally {mp9ssible fo!"_~t to4Ie; that
it cannot be injured by fire, nor by air, nor by ether, nor by
elements still more subtle." *
It is clear from these references that t~ proposed work to
which the INFINITE was the introduction was-to e'staW:~~~,_0e
existence and immortality of the soul and its communion with
the bodY~he most exact and rati~nal manner; that it was to
be, as it were, a demonstration of the City of God as existing
~n earth in a hum~;--it IS with'such a work in ~ind that
S-wedenborg see~ to have entered upon his study orWolff's
PSYCHOLOGIA EMPIRICA; and in this study to have introduced
so many passages, invariably marked" Nota Bene," wheielnhe
outlines hrs doctri~e~oncerning-the ;~~l, especially ~s to-its
beinggeometricarand mechanicaL----­
As he reaches the end of Wolff's work, 4~ set [or!h hls~~
ideas at greater length, writing in some detail concerning the-- -.----, -_... ._'------ --­
*Compare with this passage Psy- chologica, 209.
xix

21. PREFACE.
will and the action of the soul in the will. Turning from this
t-;-~ consideration of the soul's state after the death of the body,
he addresses himself to the fascinating theme of the theologian,
the communion of souls. After this, under the heading " Con­
cerning Philosophy" he gives a draft table of the contents of
the proposed work,-which was to consist of seventeen chap­
ters ; to which table he adds a note to the effect that all the points
to be treated of are to be demonstrated from geometry, anatomy,
and experience in the elements. He then proceeds (n. 223 seq.)
to set down some anatomical observations, evidently with a view
to using them in the development of his proposed work; and
finally concludes with a second and alternative list of chapter
headings for his propos~d work, follo~~d by ·~k-;bf~ para­
graph on Faith in Christ, where is shown the profound sim­
( plicity and reverent adoration of the author as opposed to the
atheism of materialistic learning.
It seems clear therefore that the PSYCHOLOGICA was written
after the INFINITE and with a general idea of preparing for
" the work itself" referred to and promised in the INFINITE,­
a work which perhaps was to be entitled "Philosophy" or
"The Philosophy of the Particles." * - - . ­
Swedenborg, however, whether at this time or later, con­
cluded .that before his doctrines could be comprehended, it
would be necessary for him to enter into a detailed exposition
of the human body and its parts, and especially of the brains.
Therefore, laying aside for the time, the pro.Qosed work which
was to demonstrate the existence, the i~m~t~lity·and-··the
blessedness of the soul-he turned to those work; wherein he
was to···set f~~th--the results of his intense studies and deep
reflection in the field of physiology.
The years that followed the publication of the PRINCIPIA
were therefore devoted to the writing of works on physiology.
In 1737 or 1738, he wrote on the Brain; and in December 1739
he completed the ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. In the
following year he wrote furiheronthe ·Brain·~~(lT;terhe com­
posed a long series of anatomical works, culminating in the
*The reading" particularum" in tirely satisfactory.
the heading of n. 217, is not en-
xx

22. PREFACE.
ANIMAL KINGDOM. But in all these writings he seems ever to
~~~-k~pt-ht-~ew the end which he had outlined in the TREMU-
LATION, and which he more fully sets forth in the work on the
INFINITE.
In one of his manuscripts containing notes on the brain, we
see a plain indication of this intention in a little paragraph en-
titled" Eminent Generation,* by which is meant the Generation
of the Spirituous Fluid, or the descent of the soul into. the body.
" Emi~e.l:lt ge~eration (he says) cannot be understoode~.~ept_by
mea1]-s of refl.ection_and similitude, and unless we know how
every active force can be represented if!...th~ aura, just as every
image is represented iJ:!. t~e ether. But there is required re-
flection and concentration, and this upon the cortical substance.
We are not permitted to go further without a mathematical
philosophy of series and degrees." Therefore he proposed to
himself a long course before he could finally reach the goal, here
adumbrated in the PSYCHOLOGICA.
As to the nature of the work itself which is now presented to
the public, this we shall leave to the judgment of the reader.
Suffice it to say that it marks one more step on the path that
will lead the student to a clearer understanding of that doct:!i!!.e
of the soul which was present in Swedenborg's mind- ev"ffi"when
he wrote the PRINCIPIA; which so deeply influenced the-;l~le
of lis subseque.t.!.t writings ; w~ic~_it was the goal of his ambition
to set forth in clearer lig~t, that men might be led to venerate,
worship and adore the wisdom of God; and which, finally,
firmly established in his own mind, was to become the means
whereby he might rationaliy receive and fitly present to the
world, the heavenly doctrine of the New Jerusalem.
ALFRED ACTON.
BRYN ATHYN, PA.,
June 14, 1923.
*See Appendix.
xxi

25. ","'" 1
PSYCHOLOGICA
Being
Notes and Observations
on
Christian Wolff's Psychologia Empirica
[1.]
1. Is GOD A SPIRIT. iVolff says that in his NATURAL THE­
OLOGY, he wishes to demonstrate that God is a Spirit [Preface,
n. 7]. But let us first define what a spirit is. 1. Men say that
angels or genii are spirits. 2. They say that the soul is a spirit.
3. They say that the devil is a spirit. 4. We say that all things
that are active per se, even though in material things, are
spirits.* But all these spirits were created and made by the
Infinite, and consequently are finite and not infinite. God alone
is infinite. Whatever was created by the Infinite must be
finite. There is no middle term, unless it be something similar
to the finite which has not yet been so finited as to have the
attributes of the finite, though in potency, that is, in its at­
tributes, it is similar to the finite. Therefore since spirits are
created, they are finite; and if finite, they are mechanical and
geometrical, ~th an acti~e added thereto. Therefore there can
be no created spirits unless they are finite; nor finite unless they
are endowed with geometrical attributes, and consequently, un­
less they are subject to mechanical rules. As to the Infinite, on
the other hand, this can have nothing geometrical in it, and
nothing mechanical; for it is the cause of every mechanical
principle. Hence there is no mechanical or geometrical nexus
between the Infinite and the finite. The Infinite is the cause,
and the effect is immediate.t Hence there would be no nexus
with God if not through Christ; nor through Christ except by
*CL n. 75. t Cf. n. 230.
t -2

26. 1
PSYCHOLOGICA.
[In]
[Chr. Wolffii]
[Psychologiam Empiricam]
MS., p. 159. 3 Ph. MS., p. 102.
Num Deus sit spiritus. Deum esse Spiritum demonstrare
velle ait Claris. Wollfius in sua Theologia Naturalis. Sed
primum definiamus quid sit spiritus: I. Angelos seu genios
esse dicunt spiritus. 2. Animam dicunt esse spiritum.
3. Diabolum dicunt esse spiritum. 4. Omnia quae per se
activa sunt quamvis in rebus materialibus dicimus esse
spiritum. Sed on::mes hi spiritus sunt creati et ab infinito
facti, et consequenter sunt finiti, non vero infiniti; solus Deus
est infinitum; quicquid creatum est ab infinito, hoc erit fini­
tum; medium non datur, nisi aliquid simile finito, quod ita
nondum finitum est, ut finiti attributa habeat, sed in potentia,
hoc est, in suis attributis simile finito. Ergo si creati, sunt
finiti, si finiti, accedente activo, sunt mechanici et geometrici.
Ideoque non dari possunt spiritus creati, nisi finiti, nee finiti
nisi geometricis attributis polleant, et consequenter nisi
normis mechanicis subjecti. Quod vera infinitum attinet,
nihil geometrice, nihil mechanice potest in se habere, quia
est causa omnis principii mechanici; unde nullus est nexus
mechanicus nee geometricus infiniti et finiti; est causa et
effectus est immediatus. Unde cum Deo nullus foret nexus
nisi per Christum, nee per Christum nisi quatenus corpus
3

27. 2
f
1
..
PSYCHOLOGICA.
reason of His having assumed a body. But there is a nexus of
Christ and the Holy Spirit with the Infinite, though to us, the
nature of this nexus is unknown.* Finite spirits, therefore, are
mechanical and geometrical, and so cannot be called spirits,
except it be finite spirits who are actuated by their own rules.
But God or the Infinite is not a spirit in any degree as compared
with'" finit~ spirits"; nor can He be called a spirit, unless you
would say Infinite Spirit,---=-~erm which can be predicated of
the..!.I0ly"Spi!"it, not oCthe Infinite Father. -­
[11.]
[THE EXISTENCE OF THE HUMAN SOUL.t]
2. WOLFF'S RULES. 1. We experience every moment, that
we are conscious of ourselves and of other thinqs stationed
about us [n. 11] ; to wit, by means of the eleme!)ts and of tile
?-~gans that shall conspire therewith. That this is a material
and mechanical characteristic, we see from the fact that the like
exists in brutes, in that their organs are mechanical and are
adapted to the motions of !he elem~Ets.
2. That we are conscious of ourselves, is confirmed by our
very doubting [no 12] ; for we cannot doubt except with regard
to something which exists.
3.(He'---Who is"actually conscious', of himself and of other
thingsAalso actually is, or f!.-xists. It follows therefore that we
exist. The knowledge of our existence is confirmed by our
very doubting,' or, From the fact that we doubt as to whether
we exist or not, comes theinfere1;cethat we do exist [no 13,
14, "is] ..­
4. Geometrical truths are learned by the same evidence as
that by which our own existence becomes known to us [n. 18].
S. That entity in us which is conscious of itself and of other
things outside uZ is' Ter~d th;-soul~ It is called the human
~, like'uJise the hu--:;,wn mind. Th"'erefore th"; h~;;"a~ so~Tex­
ists [no 20, iij.·---­
*Cf. Mechanism of Soul and t The titles of Chapters II to
Body, n. 25; I Infinite xiv. XIX are taken from Wolff.
4

28. 2
PSYCHOLOGICA.
assumserit; at Christi et Spiritus Sancti est nexus cum Infinito,
sed qualis sit nobis est incognitum. Ergo spiritus finiti sunt
mechanici et geometrici; ergo nec spiritus appellari possunt,
nisi spiritus finiti, qui regulis suis aguntur. At vero Deus
vel Infinitum non est spiritus in aliquo gradu comparative
cum spiritibus finitis; nec spiritus potest appellari, nisi velis
spiritus infinitus, quod de Spiritu Sancto non de Patre In­
finito praedicari potest.
MS., 160.
Reg. 1 Wolfii. Nos esse nostri rerumque aliarum extra nos
constitutarum conscios quovis momento experimur, scilicet medi­
antibus elementis et organis quae conspirabunt; hoc esse
materiale et mechanicum, videmus ex eo, quod simile sit in
brutis, quod organa sint mechanica, et ad motus elementorum
aptata. Ph. MS., 103.
2. Nos esse nostri conscios ipsa dubitatione confirmatur; non
enim dubitare possumus quam de re aliqua quae existit.
3. Qui sui aliarumque rerum actu conscius est, ille etiam actu
est sive existit. Ergo sequitur, nos existimus. Cognitio existen­
tiae nostrae ipsa dubitatione confirmatur; ex eo quod dubitamus
utrum existamus necne, colligitur nos existere.
4. Veritates geometricae eadem evUlentia cognoscuntur, qua
existentia nostra nobis innotescit.
S. Ens illud quod in nobis sibi, sui et aliarU1n rerum extra nos
conscium est, anima dicitur; vocatur anima humana, item mens
humana. Ergo anima humana existit.
5

29. 3
PSYCHOLOGICA.
6. We learn the e.t'istence of the soul before that of the body
[n. 22]. For if one thinks or if one doubts, the cause, or t~
doubting or thinking entity, is in the soul; since if it did not
exist as a-cause'-(there ;~~ldb~no doubti~g or'thinking] . The
doubt or the thought is concerning [the existence of] the body.
Hence the causing entity exists before the causate.* My opin­
ion is; What need is there to deduce the fact of my own exist­
) ence, or to argue that I am? In such a question there is no
room for doubt, nor any definite-termination. Who candoubt
that heTsrlt is what he is that should be inquired into; whether
he is rational or not; whether he possesses a soul or [not]; or
whether there is a soul. Hence the deduction to be made is:
I think, therefore, there is a soul. Still it is not yet clear
whether this soul is a rational soul or is like the soul of brutes;
for, in thei~ o~n '~ay, b-~utes also think and they possess a kind
of phantasy. But [the clearer deduction is] I doubt, therefore
there is a [rational] soul. F~ if I doubt, I will affirm or deny;
I will Ai.ss~ss argutn~Ets. Thus in the thought, there is an
analysis, and a kind of ratio or analogy. Hence it can be known
that I doubt, therefore I am rational or enjoy a rational soul
which-can doubt and affirm," can-weight arguments,;-nd by
analogy or analytical thought, can come to some concl"tffiion;
therefore I am rational; that is to say, I doubt, thereforeTam
rational. ' . ' . - - - ­
[Ill.]
[How TO ACQUIRE A KNOWLEDGE OF THE SOUL.]
3. Wolff says: Thinking is an act of the soul whereby it is
I conscious of itself and of other things outside itself [n. 23].
L Bare thought-~-also appii~bkt'Zbrui:eswhiCh enjoy a kind of
imagination,-but an imagination without any analytical and
rational searching into distinct arguments. In dreams there is
thought, but what kind of thought? The existence of the soul
is not proved by the existence of thought, but by the mode of
• Swedenborg here paraphrases Wolff's confirmation of his theorem.
6

30. 3
PSYCHOLOGICA.
6. Animae existentiam ante cognoscimus quam corporis.
Nam si cogitat vel si dubitat, causa vel ens dubitans aut
cogitans est in anima, quod si non existit ut causa, dubitatio
est de corpore vel cogitatio de corpore, hinc praeexistit ens
causans, quam causatum. Mea sententia, quid opus existen­
tiam deducere, seu argumentari quod sim, nee quisquam in
hoc dubitandi locus aut terminus est; quis dubitare potest,
quod sit; sed qualis sit disquirendum est, num rationalis vel
non, num anima polleat, vel num sit anima. Hine dedueen­
dum, eogito ergo est anima. Sed nondum liquet an sit anima
rationalis vel sit similis brutorum; nam bruta etiam suo modo
cogitant et phantasia quadam pollent; sed dubito ergo est
anima. Nam si dubito, affirmabo vel negabo, argumenta
diseutiam; ergo est analysis et quaedam ratio aut analogia in
cogitatione. Hine potest seiri, dubito ergo sum rationalis seu
anima rationali gaudeo, quae dubitare et affirmare, quae
argumenta perpendere, et per analogiam seu eogitationem
analyticam quid concludere potest; ergo sum rationalis; hoc
est, dubito ergo sum rationalis.
MS., 161.
Cogitare dicit, est actus animae, quo sibi sui rerumque aliarum
extra se conscia est. Cogitatio nuda applieari potest etiam
ad bruta quae quadam imaginatione pollent, sed qua, sine
disquisitione analytica, in argumenta distineta et rationali.
In somnis est cogitatio, sed qualis; ex eogitatione non probatur
anima, sed a cogitationis modo. In fatuis ubi vix operatur
7

31. 4-5
PSYCHOLOGICA.
thought; thought exists in the foolish, in whom the soul hardly
operates at all. There is corporeal thought, and th<:E~ is thought
frc:>m_ th~ ~~l; and these two together give me ~--rational.
Therefore, it can be said: I think, therefore I am; but not, I
think, therefore I am rational and a soul. Perhaps many
thoughts have an origin other than the soul, although the first
origin of such thoughts was the soul; but afterwards, the soul
runs into the traces it has impressed on the organs of the-T;ody,
without -any -further as~ent and, as it were, spontaneously; -for
~motion ~nce commenced is c2ntinued without any new motory,
as may be seen in tremulous bodies. In the strings of a musical
instrument the finger is the first mover, but the string may after­
wards be moved either by itself, or by something simil~r, or by
some other agency; and on such occasion, the motion cannot be
said to commence in the soul, but to come from other agencies.*
4. The m{nd is said to perceive, when it reP!!.~!!!!Lto itself
s2-1'J!§_o£j£!!t. Perception is therefore an act of the mind
whereby it represents to itself some object; such as colors, odors,
sounds [n. 24]. But to perceive colors, odors, sounds, is a
property also of brute animals; to perceive distinctly, however,
and not only to sensate harmony, but also-to know and perceive
it, is the property of man alone.
5. Apperception is attributed to the mind, inasmuch as the
latter is conscious of its own perception [n.-2S] . Apperception
is also-and es"i)edally aproperty of -the rational soul; but it is
also a property of brutes. They perceive a thing by their or­
gans, they apperceive it by their soul; for with brutes there can
be no perception without apperception. This indeed is not
possible in any living creature, inasmuch as there is a terminus
to which perception goes, and when it has arrived at this ter­
minus, it becomes apperception. _ In man this terminus is in his
[rational] soul; in brutes, it is in their soul. But as to the
* In a harp, the finger moves a xi; Princ. I, 3, p. 31. In the fiddle,
string, and the movement is then the finger is the first mover, but
extended to other strings and is the direct mover is the bow. So
continued for some time as it were with the piano, zither, etc.
spontaneously; coni. 11 Ini. IV,
8

32. 4-5
PSYCHOLOGICA.
anima, est cogitatio. Cogitatio datur corporea, datur animae,
quae simul dant mihi rationale. Did sic potest, cogito ergo
sum, non vera, cogito ergo sum rationalis, et anima. Multae
cogitationes fortassis aliud principium habent quam ab anima,
quamvis primum illius cogitationis principium fuerit animae
sed dein in organis corporis impressa ejus vestigia sine assen-
tiente amplius anima recurrit tanquam sponte sua; nam motus
semel inchoatus sine novo motore continuatur, ut in tremulis
videre licet; in chordis est digitus primum movens, sed dein
potest moveri vel per se, vel per aliud simile, vel per aliud
quid, qui motus non sic dici potest incipere in anima ilIa vice,
sed ab aliis.
Ph. MS., 104.
Mens percipere dicitur, quando sibi objectum aliquod reprae-
sentat; est itaque perceptio actio mentis, qua objectum sibi reprae-
sentat, ut colores, odores, sonos. Sed percipere etiam est
brutorum, qua colores, odores, sonos; sed distincte percipere,
harmoniam non modo sentire, sed etiam scire et percipere,
hoc est hominis.
Menti tribuitur apperceptio, quatenus perceptionis suae con-
scia est; est etiam apperceptio animae rationalis speciatim,
sed etiam est brutorum; percipiunt per organa, appercipiunt
illud per suam animam. Nam penes bruta non dari potest
perceptio sine apperceptione, in nullo vivo, quatenus terminus
est ad quem tendit perceptio, quum pervenit ad illum ter-
minum fit apperceptio, quod in homine quidem est in anima,
in brutis in illorum anima; sed qualis sit apperceptio, ex
9

33. 6-8
PSYCHOLOGICA.
nature of the apperception,-whether or not there is in it a
[rational] soul,-this may be concluded from the quality and
mode of the apperception.
6. Every thought involves both perception and apperception
[n. 26]. This is true, according to what was said above,
namely, that no thought is possible without perception and ap­
perception; nor, in living creatures, is perception possible with­
out apperception. The same is also true of brutes. Therefore,
to apperceive, is to be conscious. According to our author,
"when I see the sun, I am conscious of its existence" [ib.].
This at once involves something more than apperception; it in­
volves something more distinct, some resultant arising from the
apperception that the sun exists; as for instance, what the
nature of the sun is, and what its distance from the earth.
This apperception involves still more; it involves also an act of
the soul. Wolf! adds: We are conscious of the sun, not as it
really is, but as our mind represents it to herself [ib.]. This
also is a property of brutes.
7. All that is gathered by legitimate 1'easoning from the things
observed to be in our mind, and all that is then inferred there­
from,' is agreeable also to the mind. The sa·me holds good of
every other entity [n. 27] . This agrees exactly with the defini­
tion of reason which I gave in my PRINCIPIA, namely that it is
something analogica1.* The only difference is, that whereas
Wolff says the things observed to be in our mind, I can state it
in this way: "the things which may be in the organs of the body
and of the senses, or of the soul,"-for they are in organs.
8. We come to a knowledge of the mind, if we pay attention
to our thoughts; and if further, we attl'ibute to the mind all that
has been gathered from the thoughts by legitimate reasoning
[no 28]. This also coincides with the definition in our PRIN­
CIPIA. For if we pay attention to our thoughts, there is at once
something else at hand which reasons, distinguishes, collates;
or, there is an analogy or rational.
*"The rational consists in know­ analogy may be obtained; and also
ing how to arrange the ratios in being able to make this arrange­
learned from the world, into such ment." (Prill. I, 2, fin.)
order and connection, that an
10

34. 6-8
PSYCHOLOGICA.
qualitate et modo apperceptionis conc1udi potest, num anima
sit vel non.
MS., 162.
Omnis cogitatio et perceptionem et apperceptionem involvit;
verum est secundum antedicta, nulla cogitatio datur sine
perceptione et apperceptione; in vivis nee perceptio sine
apperceptione, hoc etiam in brutis; ergo appercipere est
conscius esse. Quum solem video, secundum autorem, ejus
consistentiae conscius sum; hoc statim involvit aliquid plus
quam apperceptionem ; involvit distinctius quid et resultatum
ex apperceptione quod consistat, ut qualis sit sol, qualis
distantia; haec apperceptio involvit plus et actum animae.
Addit, Solis nobis conscii sumus, non qualis revera est, sed
qualem sibi repraesentat mens nostra, hoc etiam brutorum est.
Quae ex iis, quae menti inesse observamus, legitimo ratiocinio
colliguntur, et quae porro ex his inferuntur; eadem quoque menti
conveniunt; idem valet de omni ente alio. Haec conveniunt ad
amussim cum definitione rationis, quam dedi in Principiis,
quod analogicum sit; ilIa tantum est differentia, quod dicat,
quae menti inesse observamus, possum ita dicere, quae organis
corporis et sensuum vel animae inesse possunt, nam insunt in
organis.
Ad cognitionem mentis pervenitur, si ad cogitationes nostras
attendimus, eidemque porro tribuimus quae legitimo ratiocinio
ex iis colliguntur. Hoc etiam coincidit cum nostra definitione
in Principiis; nam si attendimus ad cogitationem, fit statim
aliud quid ratiocinans, distinguens, conferens, vel analogon
aut rationale.'
1 The reading in the MS. is ratiocinate.
11
3

35. 9-12
PSYCHOLOGICA.
[IV.]
[THE FORMAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PERCEPTIONS.]
9. The light of the soul is the clarity of perception. The soul
is said to be enlightened,. as when it is conscious that it per­
ceives, and when it makes proper distinctions between the things
which it perceives. On the other hand, darkness in the soul is
called obscurity [n. 35, 36]. A clear perception is called dis­
tinct,. and the opposite, confused [n. 38, 39]. Perception is
partial and compound [n. 40].
10. If the particular perceptions have been clear, the com­
pound is distinct [n. 41]. This is true merely of man and of
reason, that from distinct particulars he can form a distinct com­
pound; for between them there is a middle ratio. In all other
cases, there are no clear particular perceptions except in form;
and more especially since no clear compounds are possible unless
the particulars be clear; therefore no compound is clear because
no particular; for it is compounded of unknown particulars.
11. One who clearly perceives in a single perceptible entity
many particulars 'which can be enunciated separately, perceives
that entity more distinctly than one who clearly perceives in it
fewer particulars [n. 42] . This is in accordance with my opin­
ion, that there must be many similars, in order that a compound
or resultant may be obtained.
12. If total perceptions are distinct, the soul is in a'state of
distinct perceptions [n. 45]. In rational thought new percep­
tions are always rising up, both particular perceptions and simi­
lar total perceptions; and this by alternations; which is a sign
that from one thing, many are suggested, one being ever the
cause or conductor of another; and that similar things always
come forward; or, that from one thing come a thousand other
and similar things, whether they be such as have presented
themselves as similar in the formation, or such as have offered
themselves as equal to the simile.* If some dissimile comes
*By simile the author means a leading; while to use " similar" as
state or tremor similar to some a noun is an unnecessary barbarism.
other state or tremor. We have The above applies also to the word
elected to use the word simile; for " dissimile."
"similar thing" is apt to be mis­
12

36. 9-12
PSYCHOLOGICA.
Lumen animae est claritas perceptionis: IUuminari anima,
ut dum sibi conscia est, quod percipit, ut ea quae percipit,
probe a se invicem distinguat; obscuritas vero vocatur tene­
brae. Perceptio clara dicitur distincta; e contra confusa. Per­
ceptio partialis et composita.
Si perceptiones particulares fuerint clarae, composita dis­
tincta est. Hoc est mere hominis et rationis, ut a distinctis
particularibus formare possit, distinctum compositum, nam
intercedit ratio media; alias particulares clarae non dantur 2
Ph. MS., IOS.
nisi qua formam; praecipue quum composita nulla clara dari
possint, nisi particularia sint clara, ergo nullum compositum
est clarum, quia nullum particulare quia a particularibus
ignotis componitur.
MS., 163.
Qui plura singiUatim enunciabilia in eodem perceptibili clare
percipit, is magis distincte idem percipit aUero, qui pauciora
in eodem clare percipit: Secundum meam opinionem quod
plura similia dari debeant, ut compositum aut resultatum
habeatur.
Si perceptiones totales distinctae sunt, anima est in statu
perceptionum 3 distinctarum §. 4S; aliae et aliae semper subeunt,
tarn particulares quam similes totales, et sic alternis in cogi­
tatione rationali, quod signum est ex uno plura succurrere,
et semper unum esse alterius causam vel manuductionem,
et similia semper prodire, sive ex uno mille alia similia, vel
quae in efformatione simile se stiterat, vel simili se par obtuler-
I datur. • perfectionum.
13

37. 13-14
PSYCHOLOGICA.
forward, it is a sign that, when the given notion had first reached
the soul, it had come from such a dissimile, or together with it j
and thus the dissimile sometimes comes forward. This, how­
ever, is a blemish in cultivation and use, or in the first * method
of learning.t
13. If the partial perceptions which enter into a total per­
ception have been obscure, the total perception is obscure; or:
If the partial perceptions are obscure, the soul is in a state of
obscure perceptions [n. 46, 47]. For the first perception, which
will be the cause of the other and similar perceptions, is obscure,
and so consists of tones over-obtuse and not certain, or else of
two dissimilar tones j and if these are to be the causes and
origins of the other and similar perceptions, then the simile and
the dissimile come in simultaneously; and from two dissimiles
there cannot come a single simile, unless it be a discord of the
many. For one perception must be the cause of many percep­
tions, and these many present themselves in an instant. If then
they be dissimilar, or if they cannot come forward, then the
particular becomes obscure together with the compound. This
can be demonstrated in tones, nerves or strings and membranes j
it can be demonstrated in geometrical ratio or analysis. T~us,
if there be, not a single principle or beginning, but two, then
the others cannot be disposed in order, so as to present a ratio,
or give a result.t
14. The representation of a thing when considered objectively
is called an idea; the representation of things or [of genera and]
species in a universal, is called a notion. Notions like percep­
tions are clear or obscure,. [and the clear are] distinct or con­
fused. To cognize a thing is to acquire an idea or notion of
that thing. Cognition is an action of the soul. The faculty
of cognizing is that by which we acquire ideas and notions.
The inferior [part of the] faculty of cognizing, is that by which
we acquire obscure and confused ideas j the opposite is the case
with the superior [part of the] faculty of cognizing [n. 48-55].
*According to the MS. this t Cf. II Inf. IV, xii.
should be "the true first," etc. :: Cf. Mechanism, 2--8.
14

38. 13-14
PSYCHOLOGICA.
at; si aliquid dissimile, signum est quum notio illa ad animam
primo pervenerit, a tali venisse vel una cum tali, unde dis­
simile interdum provenit; quod tamen est naevus in cultu et
usu, seu in vera prima methodo discendi.
Si perceptiones partiales, quae totalem ingrediuntur fuerint
obscurae, perceptio totalis obscura est. Sive si perceptiones
partiales obscurae sunt, anima est in statu perceptionum obscura­
rum. Prima enim perceptio quae causa erit reliquarum et
similium obscura est, et sic constat vel tonis nimis obtusis nec
certis, vel duobus dissimilibus, qui si esse debeant causae et
origines reliquarum similium, venit simile et dissimile simul,
nec a binis dissimilibus unum simile pervenit, nisi sit plurium
discordia; nam una perceptio esse debet causa multarum,
quae multae in instanti se sistunt, quae si dissimiles sint vel
non provenire possint, fit particulare cum composito obscurum;
hoc in tonis, nervis et membranis demonstrari potest; hoc in
ratione sive analysi geometrica; adeo ut nisi unum sit princi­
pium, sed duo sint, reliqua ordine disponi nequeunt, ut sistant
rationem, vel 4 dent resultatum.
Repraesentatio rei objective considerata vocatur idea;
repraesentatio rerum vel specierum in universali, notio.
Notiones sunt, ut perceptiones, clarae vel obscurae; [clarae
notiones sunt] distinctae vel confusae. Rem cognoscere est
ejus ideam vel notionem sibi acquirere. Cognitio est facultas
animae. Facultas cognoscendi qua ideas et notiones nobis
acquirimus. Facultatis cognoscendi [pars] inferior qua ideas
obscuras et confusas comparamus; contra facultas cognoscendi
superior.
4 nee.
15

39. 15
PSYCHOLOGICA.
[V.]
OBSERVANDA.
15. Granting that tremulation is the cause of our sensation in
the soul; and granting that the soul is in the figure of a snail's
shell or of a spiral with cones, and thus can be moved differently
at every kind of tremulous motion; let us now see how many
diversities are possible. 1. There is always some diversity at
every distance from the center; and since the polar cones are
also spiral, the distances from the center are almost infinite in
number.* 2. If the case be such, moreover, that the density of
the spiral is more subtle in the center and thicker toward the
surface, it will also differ in the ratio of thickness at every dis­
tance from the center. 3. If the tremors be greater or well­
nigh undulatory, or if they be tremulatory,t that is, if they
tremulate to a greater or lesser distance, there is at once an
infinitude of differences in this respect. In the same way, we
see that no one instrument sounds like another, even though
they be so harmonious that, in respect to harmony, they differ
not at all. Hence we have tones that are more or less soft,
sharp, vehement. So also in human sound; no one speaks in
the same tone as another. 3[a] Hence, in one and the same
place in a membrane, divers sounds may be exhibited. Just as
with the ear-drum; although there is but one drum, yet it can
be bent in an instant and successively, in accordance with all
tremors, similar and dissimilar. So also in the present case;
although naturally [the membrane] has a single tone at one and
the same distance from the center, yet by reason of the slowness
or celerity of the tremor, it can vary this tone. 4. Therefore
it can be so contorted, that at a great distance it may acquire
the same tone as at a place nearer to the center. 5. In a differ­
ent situation, extension, compression, dilatation of the poles, it
*Cf. II Infinite IV, x. tion of Elements 11. 8, 32• 8 ; 11 In­
t For the distinction between Un­ finite IV, v fin.
dulation and Tremulation, see Mo­
16

40. 15
PSYCHOLOGICA.
MS., 164.
OBSERVANDA.
Sit quod tremulatio sit causa nostrae sensationis in anima;
et sit quod animae figurae sit cochlearis seu spiralis cum conis,
adeo ut sic moveri possit differenter ad quemcunque motum
tremulum; videamus jam quot diversitates dari possint. I.
Semper aliqua diversitas ab omni a centra distantia; et quia
coni polares sint etiam spirales, hinc distantiae fere infinitae
sunt a centro. 2. Si accedat, quod etiam densitas ejus sit
subtilior in centro et crassior versus superficiem ratione
Ph. MS., 106.
crassitie[i] etiam in quavis distantia differt a centra. 3. Si
tremores sint majores vel fere undulatoriae, vel si sint tremula-
tores, hoc est, si ad majorem vel minorem distantiam tremu-
lent, statim differentiae sunt infinitae in hoc respectu; prout
videmus nullum instrumentum alteri simile sonare, quamvis
sint harmonici, adeo ut qua harmoniam nihil differant; unde
toni molliores, acutiores, vehementiores; ut etiam in sono
humano, nullus alteri similiter qua tonum loquitur. 3. In
eodem loco membranae hinc diversi soni possunt exhiberi,
non aliter ac tympanum auris, licet unicum sit, tamen ad omnes
tremores similes et dissimiles in instanti et successive flecti
potest; sic etiam hoc, quamvis naturaliter ad unam eandemque
distantiam a centra unum tonum habeat, sed ratione lenti-
tudinis vel celeritatis tremoris variare potest. 4. Unde ita
torqueri potest, ut ad ampliorem distantiam eundem tonum
nanciscatur cum loco prapinquiori ad centrum. S. In alio
situ, extensione, compressione, dilatatione polorum, statim
17

41. ....- 16
PSYCI-IOLOGICA.
at once acquires another setting of the tone, but yet such, that
all things follow in order harmoniously. 6. One tone can exist
together with another; two tones can exist simultaneously;
three or more can exist simultaneously. 7. An octave, and the
octaves thereof can be moved simultaneously or separately.
16. That this consists in an HARMONIC PROPORTION; or, along
the distances from the center, there is an harmonic proportion,
so that the differences are to each other as the first number is
to the last.* [1] Thus if we have 2,3,6, then as 3-2 is to 6-3,
so is 2 to 6. Or according to the figure, as B is to D, or as
AB is to AD, so BC is to CD. If therefore the ratio of the
A B C D
I 1 - 1 1
distances between two points be the same as the ratio of the
distance of each from the center, then there is a harmony.
This is most highly in accordance with nature. 2. An harmonic
proportion is thus similar to a geometric: AB: AD:: BC: CD.
3. If this proportion is continuous, it is still more harmonic.
4. This may be seen in the hyperbola, where, if AC, AE, AF,t
are in arithmetical proportion, then AB, CD, EG, FH, are in
harmonic proportion. S. Thus an harmonic proportion par­
takes at once of an arithmetic proportion also; just as it consists
*A proportion is harmo111c when two. Thus 2, 3, 6, is an harmonic
the first number is to the last as proportion; for 2: 6:: 3-2: 6-3.
the difference between the first two t In the MS. this is "AC, CE,
to the difference between the last EF." See Preface, p. xi.
I' 18

42. 16
PSYCHOLOGICA.
aliam toni constellationem nanciscitur, ita tamen ut omnia
ordine harmonice succedant. 6. Dnus tonus una potest esse
cum altero; bini toni simul, tres et plures simul.. 7. Octavum
et ejus octava possunt simul moveri, vel separatim.
MS., 165.
Quod in proportione harmonica consistat hoc; sive secundum
distantias a centro, proportio harmonica est, quod differentiae
se habeant ut primus numerus ad ultimum, vel sit 2. 3: 6.
"" , ~ ') Q..
• , t·~ C
ibi 3-2: 6-3, sic 2 ad 6; sive b ad d, vel ab ad ad, sic bc ad cd.
Si ergo distantiarum proportio inter utrumque prout est dis­
tantiarum utriusque a centro, tunc fit harmonia, quod maxime
naturale est. 2. Harmonica proportio sic est geometricae
similis, ab. ad: bc. cd. 3. Si haec proportio continua sit,
eo magis harmonica est. 4. Hoc in hyperbolis videre licet,
~ .. ­
A·~~it ­
ut si ac. ce. ef sint in proportione arithmetica, tunc est ab, cd,
eg, fh, in proportione harmonica. 5. Adeo ut sic participat
immediate etiam ex arithmetica, prout constet ex geometrica,
19

43. 17
PSYCHOLOGICA.
of a geometric, according to the above figures. 6. The same
geometric proportion is preserved wherever the lines from A,
e, E, F, fall upon the hyperbola, or at whatever angle, provided
only they be parallel, as ex and EY. The curvature of the
hyperbola is also preserved, because it is formed from opposite
points within the asymptotes to the other side.* This ratio can
in no wise be changed, no matter what the sine. The spaces
keep this ratio. 6 [a1 From which it follows that this spiral
curvature in the soul is hyperbolic; and differently hyperbolic
according to compression and dilatation.t 7. Such harmonic
proportions may also exist in other curves, as in the parabola,
the ellipse, etc.
17. How THE MEMBRANES SEEM TO BE EFFIGIED. They may
be effigied in a thousand ways; and therefore, in these highly
obscure matters, we wish to exhibit a formation such as seems
to be most in harmony with our elementary particles and our
actives, and which follows as a consequence from our principles
as given in our philosophy of the elements.:!: An infinite num­
ber of varieties may be propounded, though not very suitable
ones; hence guesswork will here have room for play. What is
not guesswork, is that which is a consequence of our principles,
as follows:
1. The supremely subtle membrane is convoluted from center
to peripheries into spirals.§ It arose from the dilatation of
some finite which can be expanded only into a membrane of
such form, according to the flux of its parts. With their tor­
tuous situation, these spirals possess polar cavities [or cones].
Within are actives of the first finite, and the membrane itself
is composed of second finites.11 l[a] On one side, these cones
*In connection with points 1-6, 11 In the MS. this is marked 2,
ef. II Inf. IV, xi. and then come 3, 4, etc. We have
t Cf. Mechanism, 35. altered 2 to 1[a], 3 to 2, etc., in
:j: ef. the little work A General order to make these numbers con­
Treatment Concerning the Motion form with the numbers in the ex­
of the Elements, in Scientific and planation of the delineation, and
Philosophical Treatises vo!. 1, p. also in n. 18. For the convenience
97 seq. of the reader, we have put I, 2, 3,
§ Cf. II Inf. IV, xi. etc., as separate paragraphs, al­
20

44. 17
PSYCHOLOGICA.
secundum superiora. 6. Quod eadem proportio geometrica
conservetur, ubicunque incidit in hyperbolam, seu ad quem­
cunque angulum, modo lineae sint parallelae, ut cx, ed. Quod
etiam ipsa curvatura hyperbolae quod ex oppositis spatiis
inter asymptotes ad alterum latus; quod haec ratio nullo modo
possit ad quemcunque sinum mutari; quod ipsa spatia con-
Ph. MS., 107.
servant hanc rationem. 6. Ex quibus sequitur spiralem
hanc curvaturam esse hyperbolicam in anima; et diverse
hyperbolicam secundum compressionem et dilatationem. 7.
Tales proportiones harmonicae in aliis curvis etiam dari pos­
sunt, ut in parabola, in ellipsi, etc.
Membranae quomodo videantur esse effigiatae. Mille modis
effigiari possunt, hinc velimus in obscurissimis his talem forma­
tionem exhibere, quae particulis nostris elementaribus et
MS., 166.
activis convenientissima esse videtur, et tanquam consequens
sequitur ex principiis nostris in elementorum philosophia;
sed possunt tradi infinitae varietates, sed non convenientiores,
hi[n]c divinatio hie locum habebit; quod non divinatio est,
est quod secundum seriem principiorum 'ita sequatur: I. Sub­
tilissima membrana est in spiras convoluta, a centra ad peri­
pherias, orta ex dilatatione alicujus finiti, quod non aliter
potest expandi quam in membranam talis formae, secundum
fluxum partium ejus; tortuoso situ, gaudent polaribus cavi­
tatibus. Intus sunt activa primi, et membrana ex finitis
secundis. 2. Ab una parte sunt non ligati, sed ibi influit
though here, and also in the ex- constitute a single paragraph as in
planation of the delineation, they n. 18.
21

45. 17
PSYCHOLOGICA.
are not attached, and here the first element flows into them and is
actuated into a similar motion in accordance with the tremulous
motion of the membranes. Thus the soul can be actuated into
motion by this element, and itself can actuate the latter into
motion. In these operations consists the supremely subtle sym­
pathy and communion of souls and angels, and their correspond­
ence with our soul.*
2. On the other side, a substance consisting of third finites is
applied to the cones, that is to say, to the polar cones of these
spirals; and here also there is a helix-like tortuosity. Thus this
substance consists of cells not unlike the shells of the snail and
of certain kinds of testaceans. Within are actives of the first
and second finite; for the enclosed actives must needs form
their circumferences into spirals or continuing circles,-to which
operation they flow of their own accord.
3. This part coheres with a highly delicate membrane consist­
ing of fourth finites and perhaps also of third. It is a mem­
brane which is here and there distended; and it holds the first
element enclosed within. It is mobile in the same way as the
surface of the ether [bulla]; in which latter also the first ele­
ment is enclosed.
4. This whole membrane taken together contains within it
cavities filled with the second element, which is like the first but
grosser.
5. Attached to it is a membrane wherein is enclosed ether,
which perhaps has formed for itself rivulets running from the
one membrane to the other, in order that it may freely flow
through them and be evacuated and replenished.
6. Then comes a tunic consisting of a kind of subtle liquor.
7. And finally a tunic consisting of arteries and veins.
The arrangement is shown in the following delineation: t
... Cf. Tremulation, p. 6. with the circles RS forming the
t It should be noted that in the center. EFG and HIJKL would
interpretation of this delineation, the also be continued in the peripheries
three upper lines have been curved. around this center. Thus the whole
If continued they would form a would represent a primitive cell.
sphere, flattened at the poles, and
22

46. 17
PSYCHOLOGICA.
elementum primum in conos, quod secundum motum tremulum
membranae in similem motum agitur; sic potest anima ab
elemento hoc in motum agi, et potest illud in motum agere ;
in his consistit sympathia subtilissima, et communio animarum,
angelorum, et illorum correspondentia cum anima nostra.
3. Ab altera parte in conis est applicata substantia finitis
tertiis constans, scilicet in conis illorum polaribus, ubi helicis
instar etiam tortuositas est; et sic constat cellulis non aliter
ac cochleae et quaedam testarum genera. Intus sunt activa
primi et secundi, nam activa inclusa non possunt aliter quam
formare ambientes in spiras seu continue circulares, ad quod
etiam suapte fluunt. 4. Haec pars cohaeret cum membrana
tenuissima constans finitis. quartis, et fortassis simul tertiis,
estque membrana quae hic et ibi distenta est et inclusum habet
elementum primum; quae non aliter mobilis est ac ipsa super­
ficies aetheris, cui etiam inclusum est elementum primum.
5. Tota haec membrana simul sumta, intus habet cavitates
repletas elemento secundo, similis priori sed crassior. 6. Huic
vero aligata est membrana cui inclusus est aether, qui fortassis
rivulos sibi formaverat ab una in alteram, ut libere possit
percurrere, et evacuari et repleri. 7. Dein tunica subtili
MS., 167. Ph. MS., 108.
quodam liquore constans. 8. Tandem arteriis et venis; vel
23

47. 17
PSYCHOLOGICA.
1. RS are the spirals or helices of the supremely subtle
[membrane] of the soul. ·Within them are actives of the
first finite. [la] At T where there is no attachment, is the
first element.
2. QP is the tortuosity with its hollow spirals. The
membrane consists of third finites. Within are enclosed
actives of the first and second * finite.
3. NO is the membrane adhering to it, in which is en­
closed the first element.
4. CD is the membrane in which is enclosed the second
element; yet together with the former it constitutes a single
membrane; [h, i, k, 1, m, are second elementary particles.]
S. ABCD is the membrane where ether is enclosed, which
can flow like a rivulet [e, g, f}.
6. There is a still grosser membrane, where there is a
subtle juice.
7. And another yet grosser, where is blood with its
arteries. Such is the nature of the membrane found
throughout the entire head, and over each individual par­
ticle or minutest gland.t
8. But in a body where there is no rational soul but only
a sensitive, RS are wanting.
9. The one RS is entirely similar to the other.
*The MS. has" third." tives, elements and membranes in
t The reference is to the pia their psychological aspect, see Prin­
mater, or perhaps to the piissima cipia I, i, pp. 9-10, 39-40, 41; II
mater; see Motion of El. 6; Brain, Inf. IV, fi'~ and xiii, fin; Mech­
411. In further study of the ac- anism, 12, 16,36; Motion of El. 2,
24

48. 17
PSYCHOLOGICA.
secundum delineationem: ut I. RS sunt spirae seu helices
subtilissimae animae in quibus sint activa primi; in Test ele­
mentum primum, ubi non alligata est. 2. QP est tortuositas
cum suis cavis spiralibus; membrana constat finitis tertiis;
intus sunt inc1usa activa primi et tertii. 3. NO est mem­
brana ei adhaerens, cui inc1usum est elementum primum.
4. CD membrana cui inc1usum est elementum secundum; una
tamen membrana cum priori. S. ABCD est membrana ubi
aether inc1usus, qui rivuli instar fluere possit. 6. Adhuc
crassiora sunt, ubi succus subtilis. 7. Adhuc crassiora ubi
sanguis cum arteriis. Talis membrana est per totum caput,
et super quam[li]bet particulam vel glandulam minimam. 8. At
vero in corpore desunt RS ubi non est anima rationalis sed
sensitiva. 9. Una RS est plane similis alteri.
5, 7, 30. In n. 6 of the last named A subtler membrane investing the
work, mention is made of six mem- subtler parts of the pia mater. 6.
branes, as follows: 1. The cranium. A still more subtle membrane which
2. The tunic investing the arteries issues from the next subtler. See
and veins, usually consisting in part also n. 228 below, where seven
of nervous ramifications. 3. The tunics are enumerated.
dura mater. 4. The pia mater. 5.
25

49. 18-19
PSYCHOLOGICA.
18. THE TREMORS IN THESE TUNICS. 1. In the first is the
supremely distinct tremor of the soul. 2. Likewise in the sec­
ond. 3.* In the third is the memory of brutes; but in man the
memory is in the second and likewise in the third., 4. In the
fourth is the organ of sight. 5. In the fifth is the organ of
hearing, and likewise the other sensations according to the di­
versities of the tremulations. In the 6th is implanted sensation
whether evil or good.
19. THE FORMATIONS OF THE TREMULATIONS. [1] They
are effected by use and cultivation, as the membrane is adapted
to one tremor or another. 2. All things tremble harmonically,
as for instance at the octave or some similar interval; for all
the membranes differ in their octaves. 3. If something new
enters in, which is being affixed to the membrane; or to whose
motion the membrane is being adapted, it places itself, either at
an octave with a similar thing, or else within the octave; to the
end that the distances or differences may be as extremes from
centers. It cannot place itself in an intermediate situation, since
apperception is effected by means of a simile. Then, between
these two there is also a harmony; hence when either octave is
moved, this new thing also readily comes into motion; and thus
from the three come those things which are still harmonically
joined together; and so on. From this it follows that when
men are being cultivated it is necessary, that they use such a
method that similes shall come in with similes. If perchance
some dissimile should harmoniously occupy a place among sim­
iles, then its motion t is effected by the motion or tremor that
*We understand 3 to be identical "cannot have actives of the first
with points 3 and 4 of n. 17, and and second kind, although that soul
4 to be identical with S, and so also consists of an expanse."
forth. Brutes know the four quarters and
t Compare n. 17 point 8, and also "therefore something enters into
M echallism, n. 14. In the latter their expanse which is of the qual­
reference, the soul of brutes ap­ ity of the second or magnetic ele­
pears to be identified with points 3 ment. Therefore we also can have
and 4 of n. 17 of the present work; the soul of brutes; but we have
for it is said that the brute soul also a soul still more subtle." See
26

50. 18-19
PSYCHOLOGICA.
Tremores in his tunicis. I. In prima est ipsa animae, dis­
tinctissima. 2. Pariter in altera. 3. In tertia est memoria
brutorum, sed in 2
da
est memoria hominum pariter in tertia.
4. In quarta est organum visus. 5. In quinta est auditus;
pariter reliquae sensationes secundum diversitates tremula­
In 6
ta
tionum. satus est sensus malus vel bonus.
Formationes tremulationum. Fit ex usu et cuItu; si aptatur
ad hunc aut iilum tremorem. 2. Omnia trement harmonice,
ut ad octavum, vel simile; nam membranae omnes differunt
octavis. 3. Si novum quid intrat quod affigitur vel cujus
motui aptatur membrana, vel ad octavum se locat cum simili,
vel inter octavum, ut distantiae vel differentiae sint ut extrema
MS., 168.
a centris; intermedie non se locare potest, si per simile fiat
apperceptio; dein inter haec duo etiam hamlonia, unde utroque
moto octavo facile etiam hoc in motum venit; et sic a tribus
veniunt illa quae adhuc sunt harmonice juncta; et sic porro.
Ex his sequitur, quod cum excolantur homines, necessarium
sit, ut methodo utantur, ut similia cum similibus veniunt;
si dissimile occuparet forte locum inter similia harmonice,
tunc a motu vel tremore impresso fit ejus mOtlls, et sic dis­
also Mechanism, n. 3, 21; II Inf. :: That is, the motion of the mem­
IV, xiii (the Soul of Brutes); brane.
Prin. I, pp. 1, 2; I, i, pp. 9-11.
27
4

51. 20-21
PSYCHOLOGICA.
has been impressed, and thus a dissimile comes forward in the
simile.* Hence either the man reasons absurdly; or else, by
means of much imagination, [the dissimile] is entirely lost to
the memory and obliterated, and something more similar grad­
ually occupies its place. This must be effected by use and culti­
vation.
20. Therefore according to Volff's rules if a compound be
confused, the soul is in a state of confused perceptions; and the
reverse [n. 12, 13, above].
[VL]
[SENSATION.]
21. Perceptions of material things in the visible world depend
on contingent mutations in our body [no 57]. Thus in the case
of touch, taste, smell, sound, sight, everything must exist from
mutations or be dependent thereon. So also the understanding
and the many phenomena occurring in the most subtle [senses] ;
there must be something that shall do the moving; as, for in­
stance, the passions of the animus, bilious ichor.t Thus the
imagination itself depends on mutations; it must have an origin
which shall move it; it does not exist from itself. Add to this
that perception cannot be thought of as being without an origin
which shall bring change or movement; so neither can it be con­
ceived of as being without a terminus, in that the motion goes
to a definite terminus and, as it were, to a center. Unless there
be a terminus to the motion, there can be no perception. There­
fore some motions are terminated in subtle organs, and some
in the soul. They cannot all go to the soul itself, except by
help of the imagination. Thus a tremor in a larger [medium]
that is to say, a grosser tremor, moves simultaneously, and in
like manner at the octave, with the differences in smaller
[mediums] and thus a tremulation comes into existence.:j: How
*C/. Mechanism, 2-6; Prin. 1,4, grosser medium and tends to a
p.43. more subtle medium, it sensibly be­
t C/. II In/. IV, 3. comes the same motion in things
:j: We interpret this in the sense more subtle, and consequently a
indicated in II Infinite IV, v fin: more distinct motion. Tremulation
"Vhen a motion begins in a in the air may cause undulation in
28

52. 20-21
PSYCHOLOGICA.
simile cum simili prodit; sic vel absurde ratiocinatur, vel ex
memoria per multam imaginationem plane perit et obliteratur,
et sensim quid similius locum illum occupat, quod fiet ex usu
et cultu.
Ergo secundum regulas Wollfii si compositum sit confusum
est anirila in statu perceptionum confusarum; et contra.
Ph. MS., 109.
Perceptiones rerum materialium in mundo aspectabili a
mutationibus in corpore isto contingentibus dependent. Sic in
tactu, gustu, olfactu, sono, visu, omnia existent vel dependent
a mutationibus; sic etiam intellectus et plura in subtilissimis,
erit aliquid quod movet, ut si passiones corporis, si aliquid
bilosum icor; sic ipsa imaginatio dependet a mutationibus,
habebit originem se moventem, ex se non existit. Accedit
quod perceptio non considerari possit sine origine quae mutet
vel moveat; sic etiam non concipi possit sine termino, quod
moveatur ad certum terminum et quasi ad centrum; nisi
terminus sit motus, nulla erit perceptio. Ergo quidam motus
terminantur in organis subtilibus, quidam in anima; non omnia
ad ipsam animam ire possunt,5 nisi adjuvante imaginatione,
adeo ut tremor in majori, seu crassiusculus, moveat simul
similiter ad octavum differentibus in minoribus, adeo ut
the ether, and undulation in the trcmulation of a grosser membrane
ether may cause a still greater un- may bring undulation to a more
dulation in a more subtle element. subtle membrane." Compare also
This can be ocularly shown by ibid. 12, 3, 32, 3.
large and small balls," etc. Sce & possint.
also Mot. of Elements 43 : "The
29

53. 22-24
PSYCHOLOGICA.
can we say of touch, smell, and hearing, that they depend on
mutations, if we do not say the same thing of sight also, and of
the passions of the body and of the animus ! * As nature oper­
ates in the greater so she operates in the lesser. There is no
difference. Why take refuge in the unknown just because we
do not see? The things which we do not see are infinitely more
than those which we see. If we do not see an insect, are we
then to say it is [non] existent? that it lacks membrane? that
it does not move mechanically, etc.?
22. Those bodies are present to us which have such a situation
in relation to our body, that they can be perceived by us if there
be no accidental obstacle [n. 60]. They are not present because
they exist, but they are present in respect of a contiguum.
Thus the sun is present by reason of a contiguum, a rose, by
reason of its odor. A thing is present to the perception by
reason of a contiguum. Otherwise no presence can be thought
of.
23. A body is present in some place, if it is situated within
the termini by which we define that place [n. 61]. Therefore
presence cannot be thought of unless there be a terminus to
which [it is referred]. If it be presence in the soul, the termi­
nus must be there; if elsewhere, the terminus must be there.
[The thing present] always goes off to the soul; for the things
of the memory are ever in motion with all else; hence a subtle
tremor arises therefrom, and thus passes on to the soul. If
there were no tremors of the memory, there would be no per­
ception. Through the memory the tremor is led on to the soul.
In brutes the motion of the sight, hearing, etc., can be brought
only to the sensitive soul; and it is brought thither only by
means of more subtle tremors.
24. Sensation is a perception which can be explained in an
intelligible way as a mutation effected in some organ of our
body as such [no 65]. Sensation cannot come to the soul, unless
there be intermediate membranes tremulous to a more subtle
motion. Since these membranes are instantly moved to tremu­
lous motions adapted to them,-and this, either because of some
*The MS. has "animae" (of as a slip for animi.
the soul) which we have assumed
30

54. 22-24
PSYCHOLOGICA.
tremulatio existat. Quid dicemus de tactu et olfactu, auditu,
quod dependeant a mutationibus, nisi etiam idem dicamus de
visu, de passionibus corporis et animae; qualiter operatur
natura in majori sic in minori, nulla est differentia. Cur ad
ignotum fugimus ideo quod non videamus; sunt infinite plura
quae non videmus, quam quae videmus; si insectum non
videmus, ergo dicemus illud [non] esse, carere membris, non
mechani[ce] moveri, etc.
MS., 169.
Corpora ista nobis praesentia sunt, quae eum ad corpus nos­
trum habent situm, ut percipi a nobis possint, nisi accidentale
aUquod obstaculum adsit. Praesentia sunt non quod sint, sed
respectu contigui sunt praesentia, ut sol ratione contigui,
rosa ratione odoratus; perceptioni est praesens ratione con­
tigui, alias nulla praesentia considerari potest.
[Corpus] praesens aliquo in loco si intra terminos consistit,
quibus locum istud definimus. Ergo praesentia non potest
considerari nisi sit tenninus ad quod; si sit anima, erit ibi
tenninus, si alibi erit ibi tenninus. Abit semper ad animam,
quia res memoriae semper moventur cum reliquis; hinc fit
inde tremor subtilior sicque vadit ad animam. Nisi tremores
memoriae sint, nulla perceptio foret, per illam deducitur ad
animam; ipse motus visus, auditus etc non ad animam nisi
sensitivam brutorum perduci potest, nisi ope tremorum
subtiliorum eo deducatur.
Sensatio est perceptio per mutationem, quae fit in organo
aliquo corporis nostri qua taU, intelligibili modo explicabilis.
Sensatio non pervenit ad animam, nisi sint membranae ad
subtiliorem motum tremulae intennediae, quae cum ad motus
tremulos sibi adaequatos illico moventur, vel propter simile,
31

55. 25-27
PSYCHOLOGICA.
simile, or because of a mutation-therefore the motion advances
onwards to the soul, and becomes a rational perception. But
that motion cannot be brought thither, unless the little mem­
branes by cultivation and use ~ave been made accustomed to it,
so that they may be moved in some similar way, but more subtly.
From undulation comes tremulation; * hence comes rational
perception.
25. A sensory organ is an organic part of the body in whose
mutations are contained the reason of the perceptions of mate­
rial things in the visible world en. 66]. This is true. Percep­
tion does indeed come from these mutations; but it comes by
means of a tremor in more subtle membranes, by whose help it
is carried to the soul where is the terminus, and thus becomes
perception.
26. N. B. The question arises: FOR WHAT REASON HAS
NATURE FORMED IN OUR SENSES THAT WHICH IS SO DELIGHT­
FUL? as for instance in our sight, so many gladsome colors; in
our hearing, such great harmony; and so in the other senses;
with the result that we are harmonic organs full of delight.
The reason is because all the way to the soul, all things must
conspire to the production of harmony; all the membranes
simultaneously from the greatest to the least; all the octaves
higher and higher, the grosser and the subtler, even to the soul.
And because the harmony of all is so great, it reaches even to
the soul. Hence come such great delights, especially if some­
thing intervenes which constitutes an harmonic proportion; as
for instance intermediate delights which thus come to the soul
without impeding or injuring any organ by tremors which are
not harmonious, etc. On the other hand, if other tremors inter­
vene, the undelightful at once arises, and this presents the oppo­
site effect. Hence we have undelightful colors, undelightful
sounds, smell, taste, touch, etc.t
27. A stronger sensation obscures a weaker, so that presently
we entirely fail to pe1'ceive the weaker [n. 76]. The tremula­
tion is the same if only it be of the same celerity, whether it be
more acute or more obtuse, or whether it go to a greater dis­
* Cl. Motion of Elements 12,8, t Cf. Mechanism, 2-3.
42, 3; Principia I, 1, p. 10.
32

56. 25-27
PSYCHOLOGICA.
vel propter mutationem, hinc pergit motus ad animam fitque
perceptio rationalis; nee illuc perveniri potest, nisi per cultum
et usum, membranulae ad illum motum factae sint assuetae,
ut moveantur simili quodam modo sed subtilius; ab undula­
tione fiat tremulatio, hinc fit perceptio rationalis.
Organum sensorium est pars organica corporis, in cujus
mutationibus continentur rationes perceptionum rerum materi-
Ph. MS., 110.
alium in mundo aspectabili. Hoc verum est; ab istis mutation­
ibus pervenit quidem perceptio, sed mediante tremore in
subtilioribus membranis, cujus ope 6 defertur ad animam ubi
terminus, et fit sic perceptio.
N. B. Quaeritur quae ratio sit quod tarn deliciosum forma­
verit natura in nostribus sensibus, ut in visu tot laetos colores,
in auditu tantarn harmoniam, et sic in reliquis sensibus, adeo
ut nos simus organon harmonicum et delitiosum; ratio est,
quod omnia conspirent usque ad animam ad harmoniam
MS., 170.
producendam; omnes membranae simul a maxima ad mini­
mam; omnes octavi altiores et altiores usque ad animam,
crassiores et subtiliores. Et quia tanta est harmonia omnium,
usque dum ad animam pervenit, unde tantae delitiae, praeci­
pue si aliquid intervenit, quod constituit proportionem har­
monicam, ut intermediae quae sic ad animam perveniunt,
sine impedimento et laesione alicujus organi per alios tremores
quam harmonicos, etc.7 Contra vero, si alii intercederent,
illico injucundum venit, et contrarium effectum sistit; unde
colores injucundi, soni injucundi, odoratus, gustus, tactus, etc.
Sensatio fortior obscurat debiliorem, ita ut subinde debiliorem
prorsus non appercipiamus. Tremulatio eadem est modo sit
ejusdem celeritatis, si vel sitS acutior vel obtusior, si ad majorem
6 opus. 7 et.
8 si.
33

57. 28
PSYCHOLOGICA.
tance or to a lesser distance. Innumerable varieties are possi­
ble, even though there be but a single tone. But if the tone is
to be a single one, then generally there can be but one celerity.
A~O
C~D
E~F
C~H
Thus although (ab) has long tremors, yet they can be of a like
tone with the short and brief tremors in (cd), and with the
longer ones in (ef). This may be clearly seen in pendulums,
where the oscillation or vibration may be greater or less, and
yet may occur in almost the same time.* Therefore when there
is a stronger tremor or a stronger sensation, as in (ef), it ab­
sorbs a weaker; for it contains all the weaker, such as (cd) in
itself; and if the weaker be within it, they create no sensation,
since there is no variation in the tremor of the membrane. On
the other hand, if there be another variation, as in (gh), where
tremors swifter or slower run through the wave of one and the
same tremulous membrane, a difference at once arises, inasmuch
as it runs through the membrane not at the same time, but at
a different time, so that when it comes to the extremities or
termini, a new motion is sensated. In such case a stronger and
a weaker sensation may exist, and this simultaneously. If they
cohere harmoniously, the effect is at once delightful; if not, it
is undelightful. It should also be borne in mind, that all the
senses, sight, hearing, taste, smell, can perceive at one and the
same time, inasmuch as they differ in the origin, and quality of
their tremors.
28. So also in the imagination; if there be here a tremule,t
and it be powerfully tremulous, not only are all other thoughts
wont to be impeded, but even the operations of the senses; so
that at that moment we neither see nor hear; or if we see and
* Cf. Trl!mulation, p. 49. trl!mor. The latter is used of sen­
t Trl!mttlmn, the diminutive of sation, the former of imagination.
34

58. 28
PSYCHOLOGICA.
distantiam vel minorem distantiam abeat; innumerae dantur
varietates quamvis unus sit tonus; si tamen unus erit tonus,
lA...
c~(
~?
J~
generaliter9 erit una celeritas; ut in (ab) quamvis sint! longi
tremores, possunt esse similes coni cum curtis et brevibus
(cd), cum adhuc longioribus ut in (ef), quod in pendulis
videre liquet, ubi oscilatio vel vibratio major vel minor datur,
tamen in eodem fere tempore; ergo cum fortior tremor seu
fortior sensatio ut in (ef), absorbet debiliorem, nam in se
habet omnes debiliores ut etiam (cd); et si inessent debiliores
nullum sensum creant, nam nulla est variatio in tremore
membranae. At vero si alia variatio sit ut in (gh), ubi
tremores citiores vel lentiores pereurrunt undam ejusdem
tremulae membranae, turn statim oritur differentia, quia per­
currit membranam non eodem tempore, sed diverso, ut dum
in extremitates seu terminos sentitur alius motus; tunc fortior
et debilior sensatio dari potest, et quidem simul; quae si
harmoniee eohaerent est statim delitiosum, si non est injueun­
dum. Hoc etiam animadvertendum est,! quod uno tempore
omnes sensus possint 2 appereipere, visus, auditus, gustus,
oIfaetus, quia differunt origine, et tremorum qualitate.
MS.,I7I.
Sic etiam si in imaginatione sit tremulum et fortiter tremu­
lum, impediri solent non modo aliae eogitationes, sed etiam
ipsorum sensuum operationes, ut eo momento nee videamus,
audiamus, vel quamvis videamus, et audiamus, tamen nulla
9 generiliter. 2 possunt.
I sit.
35