Is is possible not to have stress at work place? If your answer is no, then you can emphasize occupational stress theories, occupational stress models, and tools to cope with occupational stress in this presentation. I wish all of you a stress-free job.

1. Organizational Psychology
Prof. Dr. Elçin Kürşat
Gönenç DALGIÇ
Yaşar University
PhD in Business Administration
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2. OUTLINE
 Introduction
 Topics relevant to occupational stress
 History
 Approaches
 Terminology
 Occupational Stress Models
 Workplace Stressors
 Reducing The Impact of Workplace Stressors
 Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research
 Generalizability
 Stressors Experienced
 Coping With Stress
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3. Introduction
• Health of employees
• Physical
• Mental
Researches
• Media attention
• Everyday
conversation
Popularity
• OCCUPATIONAL
STRESS
Scientific Study
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4. Introduction
Does occupational stress really have an aversive
affect on individuals and organizations???
Are those who are studying occupational stress
“making mountains out of molehills”???
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5. May 7, 2013 5

6. Negative Outcomes of Stress
Increased health
care costs
More on-job-
accidents
Higher rates of
absenteeism &
turnover
Increased
compensation
claims
Reduced
productivity
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7. History of Occupational Stress
Milestones:
 1914: Walter Cannon
 1956: Hans Selye
 1960s: University of Michigan Institute for Social Research
 1978: Terry Beehr & John Newman
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8. History of Occupational Stress
Walter Cannon
 Well-known physiologist
 Relationship between emotions & physiological responses
 It is considered the earliest work in the field of
psychosomatic medicine.
 Coined the term: Homeostasis
 Meaning: Body’s effort to restore normal physiological
functioning when some deviation is required. It is a process
in which the body’s internal environment is kept stable or
constant.
 Stressful work conditions are perceived as aversive events
that require adaptive response to restore normal functioning.
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9. History of Occupational Stress
Hans Selye
 He is the first on scientific investigations of stress
and considered as “Father of Stress”.
 He is an endocrinologist.
 His research:
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Research
• Aversive stimuli exposed to animals E.g.: Temperature
extremes
Finding
• Animals effort to adapt the aversive stimuli.
Result
• People do much the same to cope with challenges in everday
life GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

10. History of Occupational Stress
University of Michigan Institute for Social Research
 The first large-scale program focusing specifically on
stress in the workplace.
 The research focuses on psychosocial factors in the
workplace that may be stressful to employees.
 Psychosocial factors represent the aspects of the work
environment having to do with interactions with other
people.
 Focus on role stressors.
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11. History of Occupational Stress
Terry Beehr & John Newman
 1978: large review and analysis on occupational stress
published in the journal of Personnel Psychology
 Important and frequently cited work
 Alert people in the field of organizational psychology
that occupational stress is a worth of attention.
 Volume of occupational stress research has increased
after the publication of this review.
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12. Approaches
Occupational
Stress
Medical
Clinical /
Counseling
Engineering
psychology
Organizational
psychology
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13. Terminology of Stress
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Stimulus
• Stress = some type of force acting upon the individual.
• (Stress is used for negative aspects of the work environment)
Response
• Stress = a way in which employees react to stressful job conditions.
• (Stress is used for response of employee)
Stimulus-
response
• Stress = overall process by which the work environment may
negatively impact employees.
• Stressor: It represents anything in the job or organizational
environment that requires some adaptive response on the part of
employees.
• Strain: It refers to a multitude of maladaptive ways of employees
may react to stressors.

14. Categories of Strain
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Psychological
• Emotional
responses to
stressors
• Depression,
anxiety, frustration,
hostility
Physical
• Responses related
with employees’
physical health and
well-being
• Blood pressure,
heart rate
Behavioral
• Responses associated
with behaviors
• Job performance,
substance abuse,
absenteeism,
turnover

15. Occupational Stress Models
 Institute for Social Research Model (ISR)
 Beehr and Newman’s Facet Model
 Demands- Control Model
 Person – Environment Fit Model
 Effort – Reward Imbalance
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16. Occupational Stress Models
Institute for Social Research Model (ISR)
 1- Objective Environment = anything in the employee’s
work environment
 2- Psychological Environment = employee’s perception of
the objective environment; appraisal process
 3- Response = Immediate physical, behavioral and
emotional responses of an employee after appraisal
 4- Mental & Physical Health and Disease= Depends on the
duration and severity of the immediate response
Individual differences have impact on the 2, 3, 4. steps.
 5- Enduring Properties of the Person
 6- Interpersonal Relations
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17. Occupational Stress Models
Beehr and Newman’s Facet Model
 Occupational stress process can be examined in a number
of “facet”s. Facets represent categories of variables to be
studied.
 Personal facet: Stable characteristics that employees bring
them to the workplace. (e.g: age, gender; personality)
 Environmental facet : Those stimuli in the work
environment that employees must confront. (e.g.: work
characteristics, level of comlexity, nature of job-related
interpersonal relations)
 Process facet: Employees appraise the work environment
and decide whether it is harmful.
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18. Occupational Stress Models
Beehr and Newman’s Facet Model
 If the employee perceives stressors after appraisal, there
may be several consequences:
 Human consequences facet: Ways in which employees
may respond to stressors (e.g.: health problems, substance
abuse)
 Organizational consequences facet : Employee
responses that have implications primarily for
organizational functioning. (e.g.: absenteeism, turnover)
 Adaptive responses facet: Efforts on the part of
individuals and organizations to respond adaptively to
stressors.
 Time facet: has an impact on all other facets
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19. Occupational Stress Models
Demands - Control Model
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The most stressful situations in the workplace are those in which
employees face heavy job demands, but at the same time
are given little control over their work.

20. Occupational Stress Models
Person – Environment Fit Model
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An employee perceives the work environment as stressful
when there is a lack of fit.

21. Occupational Stress Models
Effort – Reward Imbalance
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It is stressful in the workplace when employee’s efforts are out of
proportion with the rewards that the job provides.

22. Workplace Stressors
 Commonly studied
stressors
 Role stressors
 Workload
 Interpersonal conflict
 Organizational
constraints
 Perceived control
 Contemporary
organizational stressors
 Work-family conflict
 Mergers & Acquisitions
 Layoffs & Job insecurity
 Emotional Labor
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23. Workplace Stressors
Commonly studied stressors
Role stressors
 Role: a set of behaviors that are expected of a person.
 Role related information is both formal and informal.
 Uncertainty of role related information leads to: Role Ambiguity
 Lack of consistency in the role related information leads to: Role Conflict
 Too many demands that an employee can accomplish leads to:Role Overload
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24. May 7, 2013 25
Workload
 Definition: Amount of work an employee has to do in a
given period of time.
 Perceptional / Objective
 Cyclical
 Qualitative (Difficulty)
 Quantitative (Performing)
 Studies generally focus on physical outcomes of workload.
E.g.: Relation between work hours and physiological effects
Workplace Stressors
Commonly studied stressors

25. Workplace Stressors
Commonly studied stressors
Interpersonal conflict
 Most jobs require interaction with coworkers, customers, contractors…
 Such social interactions are often a source of satisfaction and personal
fulfillment.
 Negatively charged interactions may make work stressful.
 Several potential causes of conflict:
 Competition among people
 Rude / contentious behavior
 Unintentional behavior (e.g.: free-riding)
 Interpersonal conflict is correlated with physical, psychological,
behavioral strains; most notably feeling anxiety at work
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26. Workplace Stressors
Commonly studied stressors
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Organizational constraints
 The more effective employees, the more effective the organization will.
 Organizational conditions may constrain employee performance
(e.g:unnecessary rules, procedures, a lack of resources…)
 Organizational constraints (Peters & O’Connor – 1980)
 Job-related information
 Budgetary support
 Required support
 Time and materials
 Required services and help from others
 Task preparation
 Time availability
 Work environment
 Scheduling of activities
 Transportation
 Job-related authority

27. Spector’s research (1986)Perceived control
 Much more general
 Related with human desire to
control over the environment
even if this control is illusory
 Perceived control is manifested
in organizations in two ways :
 Job autonomy: Employee has the
discretion over tasks performed,
starting & ending time.
 Participative decision making:
employees who implement
decisions, also participate in
formulation of decisions. E.g.:
Labor management committees
Outcome
Job
Autonomy
Participation
Job
satisfaction
.37 .44
Emotional
distress
- .37 - .18
Physical
symptoms
- .33 - .34
Turnover
intent
- .26 - .20
Turnover - .25 - .38
Performance .26 .23
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Workplace Stressors
Commonly studied stressors

28. Workplace Stressors
Contemporary organizational stressors
Work-Family Conflict
 Demands from work and family
are competing more.
 Demands of work interfere with
family responsibilities.
 Demands of family interfere with
work responsibilities.
 Sources of support to help
balance those are increasingly
unavailable.
 Work-family conflict literature:
 Time-based conflict
 Strain-based conflict
 Behavior-based conflict
Mergers & Acquisitions
 Merger: Two separate
organizations combine to
form a new one.
 Acquisition: One company
obtains a controlling
financial interest in another
company.
 Employees’ feelings of
anxiety, uncertainty, and job
insecurity.
 Recommendation:
communicate to employees as
much information as
possible.
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29. Layoffs & Job Insecurity
 66% of US firms with more than
5.000 employees reported
reducing their workforce
through layoffs in the late 1980s.
 Layoffs’ impacts:
 Employees who survive layoffs
may have feelings of vulnerability
and even guilt.
 Job loss has bad outcomes on
mental and physical health (till
reemployment).
 Job insecurity has a negative
impact on employee emotions
and well-being.May 7, 2013 30
Workplace Stressors
Contemporary organizational stressors
Emotional Labor
 There is a shift from heavy
manufacturing to service
sector. This changed the
content of jobs.
 An employee is forced to
confront negative emotions.
 An employee is forced to
suppress his/her emotions
for organizational goals
= surface acting

30. Reducing The Impact of Stressors
 Stress management training
 Reduction of Stressors
 Alternative Work Schedules and Telecommuting
 Family – Friendly Benefits
 Health & Fitness Programs
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31. Reducing The Impact of Stressors
Stress management training
 Purpose: to help provide employees with the necessary
resources to cope with stressors when they faced.
It is not eliminating or minimizing the stressors; their existence
is basically taken for granted.
 Education Programs
 Relaxation Training
 Biofeedback Training
 Teaching techniques
 Stress-Inoculation Training
 Gathering information about stress
 Self-statements to cope with stress
 Application training: application of self-statements in everyday situations.
 Health Circles
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32. Reducing The Impact of Stressors
Reduction of Stressors
 Less popular than stress management
 Purpose: to reduce the levels of stressors
 E.g.: redesigning a job to increase autonomy, providing
greater participation to employees, training managers to
communicate more effectively with subordinates
 These interventions are usually offered as training
programs or as a part of organizational development
strategy.
 Result: decrease in stressors & increase in employees’
well-being.
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33. Reducing The Impact of Stressors
Alternative Work Schedules and Telecommuting
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Alternative
work
schedules
Compressed
work week
FlextimeYes, that is what I’ve said!
My idea has been
scientifically proved! 

34. •These benefits are designed to help
employees balance the demands of
work and family.
•Flexible spending accounts, child
care, elder care referrals, part-time
work options…
•More salient to women.
•Related with job satisfaction, lower
levels of depression and somatic
complaints, lower cholesterol
•Reduce feelings of work-family
conflict
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Reducing The Impact of Stressors
Family – Friendly Benefits

35. Reducing The Impact of Stressors
Health & Fitness Programs
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Healthy & physically fit employees are less
likely to be absent due to illness
Reduce employees’ health care costs.
Improve employees’ physical health and
fitness

36. Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research
 Can occupational stress models be generalized?
 Do cultural factors impact the work stressors?
 Do cultural factors impact the ways of
employees to cope with work stressors?
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37. Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research
- Generalizability
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38. Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research
- Generalizability
Xie(1996): Testing Karasek’s Demand-Control Model in China
 Have had greater exposure to
Western values
 Personal control is one of these
values.
 Benefited recent economic
changes
 Generally less educated, less
exposed to Western influences
 More likely to maintain
traditional values
 Traditional values impede the
desire personal control.
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39. Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research
- Stressors Experienced
 Peterson et al. (1995): Are there cultural differences in the perception
of stressors?
 Perception of role stressors vary across nations.
 Levels of role stressors could be predicted from characteristics of
different national cultures.
 Perception of role stressors differ with respect to Hofstede’s cultural
dimensions.
 Van De Vliert & Van Yperen (1996): Research on cross-national
differences in role overload
 Cross-national differences in ambient temperature led to differences in
role overload.
 Liu (2003): Stressors btw. American – Chinese employees differ.
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40. Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research
- Coping With Stress
 Coping represents the manner in which employees
attempt to adapt to the stressors they experience.
 Employees in the US. confront conflict more directly
than Taiwanese and Arab Middle Eastern employees.
 Americans reported more direct (being rude to others),
Chinese reported more indirect conflict (doing things
behind people’s backs)
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41. Thank you
for
your attention
I wish you a good
and stress-free day.
May 7, 2013 42