1. Chapter 2 The First Global Age: Europe and Asia (1415–1796)

2. Section 1 The Search for Spices Section 2 Turbulent Centuries in Africa Section 4 Encounters in East Asia Section 3 European Footholds in South and Southeast Asia

3. Chapter 2: The First Global Age: Europe and Asia (1415–1796) Section 1: The Search for Spices Section 2: Diverse Traditions of Southeast Asia Section 3: European Footholds in Southeast Asia and India Section 4: Encounters in East Asia

4. A Portuguese painting from 1522 tells the story of the martyrdom of Ursula, a medieval Catholic saint. The religious story and the sailing ships in the background express the themes of the age of exploration.

8. Early Voyages of European Exploration, 1487–1609 1

10. Tools of Ocean Navigation 1 Astrolabe This device was used to measure the angles of the sun and stars above the horizon. It was difficult to use accurately in rough seas. Caravel This ship combined the square sails of European vessels with the lateen (triangular) sails of their Arab counterparts. The new rigging made it easier to sail across and into the wind.

11. Cartography Probably as long as people have been around, they have been drawing maps of things. The appeal is maybe obvious: it gives us the ability to see a much bigger picture than we would otherwise. We can see where things are, how to get places, and where we are. As travels extended, mapmakers could increase their knowledge and fill in areas of coastline and continents previously undiscovered.

12. Martin Waldseemuller was a cartographer who lived from ~1475 to 1522. Waldseemuller is particularly famous for the map he created in 1507. This map was the first to label the American continent "America," a name the mapmaker used to honor Amerigo Vespucci. As you probably realize, this name persists even today. Martin Waldseemuller is also famous for his 1507 map because it shows an uncannily accurate Pacific coast of South America. At the time of its publication, no Westerner was known to have visited the Pacific side of this continent, and much speculation has centered on how Waldseemuller could have so accurately drawn the coast.

14. Portugal’s Voyages to the East By the 1400s, Portugal had expanded into Muslim North Africa. Henry the Navigator sent ships to explore the western coast of Africa. In 1488, Bartholomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa, later called the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497, Vasco da Gama reached the spice port of Calicut in India. In 1502, da Gama forced a treaty on Calicut. The Portuguese seized key ports around the Indian Ocean to create a vast trading empire. 1

15. Over the next two centuries, some Portuguese explorers managed to reach parts of present-day Congo, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, establishing limited trade. In general, however, the Portuguese did not venture far from the coasts. They knew little about Africa’s interior, and they lacked accurate maps or other resources to help them explore there. Furthermore, Africans in the interior, who wanted to control the gold trade, resisted such exploration. As a result of all these factors, when the Portuguese empire declined in the 1600s, the Portuguese did not leave a strong legacy in Africa. From West Africa, the Portuguese sailed around the continent. They continued to establish forts and trading posts, but they also attacked existing East African coastal cities such as Mombasa and Malindi , which were hubs of international trade. With cannons blazing, they expelled the Arabs who controlled the East African trade network and took over this thriving commerce for themselves. Each conquest added to their growing trade empire.

16. African Kingdoms and Trading States, 1000 B.C.–A.D. 1600

19. The Kingdom of Ghana By A.D. 800, the rulers of the Soninke people had united many farming villages to form the kingdom of Ghana. The king controlled gold-salt trade routes across West Africa. So great was the flow of gold that Arab writers called Ghana “land of gold.” Over time, Muslim merchants established Islam in Ghana. Muslim art, technology, and philosophy were influential as well. When the empire of Ghana declined in the late 1100s, it was swallowed up by a new rising power, the kingdom of Mali.

21. The Kingdom of Mali Mali emerged by 1250. It controlled both the gold-mining regions to the south and the salt supplies of the Sahara. The greatest emperor of Mali was Mansa Musa who came to the throne in 1312. Musa expanded Mali’s borders. A convert to Islam, Musa journeyed to Mecca in 1324 to fulfill the hajj. Musa’s pilgrimage forged new ties with Muslim states and brought scholars and artists to Mali. The Kingdom of Songhai As Mali weakened in the 1400s, a new West African kingdom, Songhai , arose. Songhai forged the largest state that had ever existed in West Africa. The kingdom controlled trade routes and wealthy cities like Timbuktu, a leading center of learning. Songhai prospered until about 1586. At that time, civil war and invasion weakened and splintered the empire. Askia Muhammad

22. Trade Routes of East Africa By the time the kingdom of Axum conquered Nubia about A.D. 350, Axum had long been an important trading center. Located southeast of Nubia, Axum linked trade routes between Africa, India, and the Mediterranean world. A powerful Axum king converted to Christianity in the 300s. At first, Christianity strengthened ties to the Mediterranean world. However, in the 600s, Islam came to dominate North Africa, leaving Axum an isolated island of Christianity. Over time the kingdom of Axum slowly declined. As Axum declined, a string of trading cities gradually rose along the East African coast. Since ancient times, traders had visited this coast. In the 600s, Arab and Persian merchants set up Muslim communities under the protection of local African rulers. By 1000, port cities were thriving from trade across the Indian Ocean.

23. Societies in Africa Factors such as Africa’s varied geography, diverse climates, and later migration and trade played major roles in how early societies developed throughout the continent. In some medieval African societies, the nuclear family was typical, with parents and children living and working together, while in other communities the family included several generations. Political patterns varied depending in part on the size and culture of the community. Across Africa, religious beliefs were varied and complex. Some Africans followed traditional beliefs and were polytheistic. By 100, both Christianity and Islam had spread to many regions of Africa. African societies preserved their values and history through both oral and written literature. Oral traditions date back many centuries. In West Africa, griots , or professional storytellers, recited ancient stories as they still do today. Griots — masters of words and music, were historians, genealogists, advisers to nobility, entertainers, messengers, praise singers. We would call them spoken word artists.

29. Portuguese traders quickly joined the profitable slave trade, followed by other European traders. Europeans bought large numbers of slaves to perform labor on their plantations —large estates run by an owner or an owner’s overseer—in the Americas and elsewhere. Europeans also bought slaves as exotic servants for rich households. By the 1500s, European participation had encouraged a much broader Atlantic slave trade. An early voice raised against the slave trade was that of Affonso I, ruler of Kongo in west-central Africa. As a young man, Affonso had been tutored by Portuguese missionaries , who hoped to convert Africans to Christianity. After becoming king in 1505, he called on the Portuguese to help him develop Kongo as a modern Christian state, but he became alarmed as more and more Portuguese came to Kongo each year to buy slaves. Affonso wanted to maintain contact with Europe but end the slave trade. His appeal failed, and the slave trade continued. Africa’s great wealth was her people and millions were stolen from their homeland in the African Diaspora.

30. In 1490, the Portuguese converted the son of a Kongo king to Christianity and then helped him take his father’s throne. The new king, born Nzinga Mbemba, was renamed Affonso. King Affonso soon realized that his relationship with Portugal had extremely negative consequences, as can be seen from his letter to King John III of Portugal in 1526. In his letter, the king of Kongo appeals to the king of Portugal to end the slave trade. Europeans still refuse to take responsibility for the crimes that led to their great wealth and power.

31. The Asante Kingdom The Asante kingdom emerged in the area occupied by present-day Ghana. In the late 1600s, an able military leader, Osei Tutu, won control of the trading city of Kumasi. From there, he conquered neighboring peoples and unified the Asante kingdom. The Asante faced a great challenge in the Denkyera, a powerful neighboring enemy kingdom. Osei Tutu realized that in order to withstand the Denkyera, the people of his kingdom needed to be firmly united. To do this, he claimed that his right to rule came from heaven, and that people in the kingdom were linked by spiritual bonds. This strategy paid off when the Asante defeated the Denkyera in the late 1600s. Under Osei Tutu, government officials, chosen by merit rather than by birth, supervised an efficient bureaucracy. They managed the royal monopolies on gold mining and the slave trade. A monopoly is the exclusive control of a business or industry. The Asante traded with Europeans on the coast, exchanging gold and slaves for firearms. They also played rival Europeans against one another to protect themselves. In this way, they built a wealthy, powerful state.

32. The Oyo empire arose from successive waves of settlement by the Yoruba people of present-day Nigeria. It began as a relatively small forest kingdom. Beginning in the late 1600s, however, its leaders used wealth from the slave trade to build up an impressive army. The Oyo empire used the army to conquer the neighboring kingdom of Dahomey. At the same time, it continued to gain wealth by trading with European merchants at the port city of Porto-Novo.

33. Elmina Castle European traders called the places where they held and traded slaves “castles.” Built by the Portuguese in 1482, Elmina Castle in present-day Ghana was used as a base for trading slaves, gold, and imported European products

34. In the late 1700s, another African ruler tried to halt the slave trade in his lands. He was the almany (from the Arabic words meaning “religious leader”) of Futa Toro, in present-day Senegal. Since the 1500s, French sea captains had bought slaves from African traders in Futa Toro. In 1788, the almany forbade anyone to transport slaves through Futa Toro for sale abroad. However, the inland slave traders simply worked out a new route to the coast. Sailing to this new market, the French captains easily purchased the slaves that the almany had prevented them from buying in Futa Toro. Approximately 40 million people were harvested from Africa --stolen into slavery for over 500 years France 

35. Following the Portuguese example, by the 1600s several European powers had established forts along the western coast of Africa. As Portuguese power declined in the region, British, Dutch, and French traders took over their forts. Unlike the Portuguese, they established permanent footholds throughout the continent. In 1652, Dutch immigrants arrived at the southern tip of the continent. They built Cape Town , the first permanent European settlement, to supply ships sailing to or from the East Indies. Dutch farmers, called Boers , settled around Cape Town. Over time, they ousted, enslaved, or killed the people who lived there. The Boers held a Calvinist belief that they were the elect, or chosen, of God. They looked on Africans as inferiors and did not respect their claims to their own land. In the 1700s, Boer herders and ivory hunters began to push north from the Cape Colony. Their migrations would eventually lead to battle with several African groups.

39. Later the two powers got together and agreed to the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) which moved the line to the West. This allowed Portugal to have part of Brazil. An additional boundary was drawn on the other side of the world through the Pacific. Although they did not cooperate, the Spanish and Portuguese stayed out of each other's way. Early Spanish and Portuguese explorations were so successful that the Pope divided up the unexplored world between the two Catholic nations. The boundary between them was called the Line of Demarcation .

40. Exploring the Americas Europeans continued to seek new routes around or through the Americas. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa discovered a passage through Panama to an ocean which he called the South Sea. Ferdinand Magellan charted a passage around the southern tip of South America and gave the Pacific Ocean its name. His crew became the first people to circumnavigate, or sail around, the world. John Cabot discovered Newfoundland in his unsuccessful quest to find a northwest passage to Asia. Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River. Henry Hudson explored what would become known as the Hudson River. 1

44. New Kingdoms and Empires This trading empire controlled the Strait of Malacca, vital to shipping. Local people blended Indian beliefs into their own forms of worship. The Khmer people adapted Indian writing, mathematics, architecture, and art. Khmer rulers became Hindus, while most ordinary people preferred Buddhism. King Suryavarman II built a great temple complex at Angkor Wat. King Anawrata made Pagan a major Buddhist center. The capital city had many magnificent stupas, or dome-shaped shrines. SRIVIJAYA KHMER EMPIRE PAGAN The blend of Indian influences with local cultures produced a series of kingdoms and empires in Southeast Asia. 2

45. Empires and Kingdoms of Southeast Asia 2

46. Vietnam The Vietnamese developed their own distinct culture. In 111 B.C., China invaded the region and remained in control for 1,000 years. During the Chinese occupation, the Vietnamese absorbed Confucian ideas, modeled their government on that of China, and adopted many aspects of Chinese culture. 2 Despite the powerful Chinese influences, the Vietnamese preserved a strong sense of their separate identity. Two noble sisters, Trung Trac and Trung Nhi, briefly drove out the Chinese and tried to restore a simpler form of government based on Vietnamese traditions. My niece and her husband My new niece, Anna

50. Commander Afonso de Albuquerque a Portuguese rifle In 1511, a Portuguese fleet commanded by Afonso de Albuquerque dropped anchor off Malacca, a rich Islamic trading port that controlled the sea route linking India, Southeast Asia, and China. The fleet remained at anchor for several weeks before opening fire. According to a Malaysian account: “ The cannon balls came like rain. And the noise of the cannon was as the noise of thunder in the heavens and the flashes of fire of their guns were like flashes of lightning in the sky: and the noise of their matchlocks [guns] was like that of groundnuts [peanuts] popping in the frying pan.” — From the Malay Annals

51. Portuguese and Dutch Trading Empires Portugal used firepower to win control of the rich Indian Ocean spice trade. In less than 50 years, the Portuguese had built a trading empire with military and merchant outposts rimming the southern seas. Despite their sea power, the Portuguese were not strong enough to conquer much territory on land. The Dutch were the first Europeans to challenge Portuguese domination is Asia. They used their sea power to set up colonies and trading posts around the world. The Dutch East India Company seized Malacca from the Portuguese. Soon after, they were able to enforce a monopoly in the Spice Islands, controlling shipments to Europe as well as much of the trade within Southeast Asia. 3

52. Spain and the Philippines In 1521, Magellan had claimed the Philippines for Spain. Within fifty years, Spain had conquered and colonized the islands. Unlike other people in Southeast Asia, the Filipinos were not united. As a result, they were easily conquered. The Philippines became a key link to Spain’s overseas trading empire. The Spanish shipped silver mined in Mexico and Peru across the Pacific to the Philippines. From there, they used the silver to buy goods in China. 3

56. Symbols of the Dutch Empire The Dutch painting Jacob Mathieusen and His Wife ( c. 1650) shows a senior official in the Dutch East India Company overlooking the Dutch fleet in Batavia, Indonesia. A slave holds a parasol, an Asian symbol of power. How can you tell that the artist was European?

58. European Trade With China The Europeans who reached Asia in the 1500s were very impressed by what they saw . The Chinese, however, saw the Europeans as “southern barbarians,” lacking civilized ways. The Ming dynasty had ended overseas exploration in the mid-1400s. Portuguese traders reached China by sea in 1514. The Ming eventually allowed them a trading post at Macao. Because they were uninterested in European trading products, the Ming demanded payment for Chinese goods in gold or silver. After the Manchus conquered China, the Manchu Qing dynasty maintained the Ming policy of restricting foreign trade. The Europeans continued to press to expand trade to other areas of China. 4 Emperor Qianlong

59. A Chinese watercolor portrays Matteo Ricci with European objects, including a model of the universe. A geography book that Ricci translated into Chinese is shown

61. Korea and Isolation: The Hermit Kingdom Several events led Korea to turn inward for a period of about 250 years. As in China, the low status of merchants in Confucianism led Koreans to look down on foreign trade. In the 1590s, a Japanese invasion devastated the land of Korea. In 1636, the Manchus conquered Korea before overrunning China. Korea was forced to become a tributary state to the Manchu’s Qing dynasty.

62. By 1638, the Tokugawas had turned against European traders as well. Japan barred all European merchants and forbade Japanese to travel abroad. To further their isolation, they outlawed the building of large ships, thereby ending foreign trade. In order to keep informed about world events, they permitted just one or two Dutch ships each year to trade at a small island in Nagasaki harbor. Japan remained isolated for more than 200 years. Art and literature flourished, and internal trade boomed. Cities grew in size and importance, and some merchant families gained wealth and status. By the early 1700s, Edo (present-day Tokyo) had a million inhabitants, more than either London or Paris. Bringing Trade and Christianity This 1600s decorative screen shows Japanese people meeting a Portuguese ship carrying European goods and missionaries. Did the presence of missionaries help or hurt European-Japanese trade relations?

63. Japan and Foreign Traders The Japanese at first welcomed western traders. They acquired western firearms and built castles modeled on the European design. The Tokugawa shoguns grew increasingly hostile toward foreigners. They saw the foreigners as agents of an invading force. They suspected that the many Japanese Christians were loyal to the pope, rather than to Japanese leaders. They disliked the competition among Christian missionaries. By 1638, the Tokugawas had barred all western merchants and forbidden Japanese to travel abroad. They also ended foreign trade. 4

67. Important European Explorers

68. European Footholds in the Eastern Hemisphere

69. Major Asian Dynasties and Empires