Leadership The Impact Of Gender (Education Appx)

Leadership
The Impact of Gender

January 2010

Introduction
Research carried out by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics and problems before suggesting steps that can be taken to address
published on the Catalyst website (www.catalyst.org) shows the issue.
that women account for 47% of the US labour force. However, There are, of course, obvious physical differences between
the 2009 statistics for the Fortune 500 show that only 15 of men and women. This paper will focus on something less
the Fortune 500 and 29 of the Fortune 1000 have female concrete but no less important – personality. Over several
CEOs. A similar situation prevails in the UK where, according years Glowinkowski International Ltd (GIL) has measured
to research conducted by Cranfield University School of male and female personality across a wide range of cultures
Management and published in The Female FTSE Board Report and different organisational sectors using a tool called the
2009, only 12.2% of directorships are held by women, a figure Glowinkowski Predisposition Indicator (GPI™). GPI™ measures
which falls to 5.2% for executive directorships. In the FTSE predispositions, defined as the underlying preferences or
100, 25% of organisations have no female directors at all. natural behaviours of an individual. Sometimes called traits,
Referring to the gender imbalance in a recent interview in predispositions represent the individual, stable characteristics
the Financial Times, Helen Alexander, President of the CBI which determine ‘who we are’.
commented on the “danger of losing real talent … at an GPI™ has been developed for use in a business environment
important time”. Organisations risk having a board which and the data, structured across three core feedback models,
doesn’t represent its customers as well as increasing the is contextualised so as to make it applicable to the way
danger of ‘groupthink’, something that occurs within groups individuals prefer to operate in organisational life. The models
of people with similar backgrounds, i.e. ‘all male’ boards. The are as follows:
consequences of these issues are potentially serious from a
• Problem Solving and Implementation Style; in other words,
business perspective. There are just seven women in director
how an individual thinks around a problem and implements
positions in the FTSE 100 banks. The FT’s recent commentary
their plans
on the financial disaster being at least in part a product of
“testosterone fuelled excesses” is not surprising. • Communication and Interpersonal Style; how an individual
interacts with others and the way they prefer to behave in
In the Foreword of Cranfield University’s 2009 report, Harriet
a social context
Harman, Leader of the House of Commons and Minister for
Women and Equality references “old boy networks” and • Feelings and Self Control; how emotional an individual is,
reflects that “there is still much more to be done”. This the way they feel in their own skin and the extent to which
suggests there is an important socio-cultural problem they react to impulses and desires
needing to be addressed. It is, however, beyond the scope of For the purpose of this paper, data will be presented as
the current paper to do this. Rather than looking at the issue a comparison of the position of men and women on the
at the macro level, here we take more of a micro dimensions which make up the GPI™. This data will be
but no less important level of analysis, investigating the discussed in terms of the way it contributes to behaviour and,
individual differences, or rather, the gender1 differences, where there are differences between men and women, the
which exist. These gender differences will be discussed in behavioural consequences of the predisposition differences
terms of how they contribute to the wider socio-cultural will be reported.

Predisposition and Behaviour
It is important to note at this stage that predisposition behaviour that delivers results and raises performance and
and behaviour are not the same. Although predispositions ultimately, it is behaviour, not predispositions for which an
encompass the way we prefer to behave, other situational organisation pays. That said, predispositions are likely to
and environmental factors influence our behaviour. Situations influence behaviour in the extent to which an individual
can therefore encourage or require an individual to behave feels comfortable behaving in a certain way and therefore,
‘out of character’ to get the job done/deliver the desired the extent to which they will be aware of and deliver their
outcome and performance. Behaviour should be looked at as required behaviours.
an interaction arising from the combination of a person (their The associations we make between predisposition and
predispositions) and the situation they are in. behaviour are based upon 25 years of experience in giving
The difference between predisposition and behaviour is a personality feedback and working in the organisational
key point because it is behaviour which really matters. It is development arena.

©2010 Glowinkowski™ International Limited

2 Introduction / Predisposition and Behaviour

Leadership - The Impact of Gender

Differences in Predisposition
In the study, 3,719 individuals’ data from the GPI™ database The GPI™ is a 182 item personality indicator. Data is presented
were included. Of this sample, 2,328 were men and 1,391 across three primary feedback models which can be broken
were women. The sample was drawn from a broad range of down into 22 sub-dimensions.
managers and executives GIL had encountered through its Data comparisons were made between the raw data of
consultancy interventions in recent years. They were spread men and women at the sub-dimension level. The data
geographically around the globe and were members of many was subjected to a One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
different types of organisations, from small entrepreneurial to statistically study the significance of the differences
start ups to large multi-national PLCs belonging to a range of between the means before being considered in terms of the
different sectors, from financial services to religious orders, consequences for the behaviour of the two groups.
from science and technology to education.

Results and Discussion
Before reporting the findings of the study and discussing the Both women and men can be thought of as conscientious but
differences that exist in the data, it is important to point out in different ways. The female form is about attainment of
that there are potentially positive and negative behavioural standards, detail and results focus. The male form is more
implications for all predispositions. To say that men differ about drive; influencing others, developing high aspirations
from women suggests that there are resulting advantages and and striving for more.
disadvantages for both genders.
The other differentiators which merit mention are the greater
Clear differences were found in the data at the raw level. In male tendency to be interested in combining abstract,
fact, out of the 22 scales, 17 showed a statistically significant apparently disconnected pieces of information (Conceptual)
difference. Of these differences, 15 were at the p<0.001 level. in order to form forward thinking, long term, big shift
In real terms, this means the significance level is extremely ideas for change (Revolutionary). There is a lower level of
high. In fact, there is less than a one in one thousand chance Impulsivity implying less of a tendency to act, then think.
of the differences being reported as significant and caused by Classic research suggests a Disciplined nature – “Delayed
gender when they actually occurred by chance. Gratification” - leads to greater long term results (See Walter
The 17 dimensions showing significant differences are shown Mischel’s Marshmallow Experiments3). That said, Impulsivity
on the next page. can afford an individual the opportunity to get ahead. It is
more of a risk taking stance but one that can reap rewards.
Data is compared against a normative group and plotted on
Whilst the Disciplined person can talk themselves out of
the scales to create a personality profile which shows the
trying and never know if they would have succeeded, the
strength of predispositions in comparison to the rest of the
Impulsive type is more likely to try and face the consequence
population. Completing this process with the average profiles
if they fail.
of men and women is illustrative of the differences between
genders that exist. Definitions of the scales are provided in Finally, men are shown to be less Modest than women.
Appendix 1. Although Modest people would hope they can let their
achievements speak for themselves, Assuming implies a desire
Overall, women were found to have higher Anxiety and lower
to sell your virtues which lessens the risk of being overlooked
Self Esteem than men. Men were found to be more Assertive,
for promotion.
suggesting they are more likely to surface issues and raise
their thoughts. It is important to reiterate the point that there are positive
and negative behavioural implications associated with all
The male and female forms of Extraversion look markedly
predisposition types.
different. Whilst the female Extraversion of Fun Loving and
Outgoing implies an encouraging warmth, friendliness and These differences complement past research in the area.
sociability - especially when combined with an Affiliative Alan Feingold’s review4 carried out at Yale University in
nature - the male ‘colour’ of Extraversion, combining the the mid nineties found men to be higher in assertiveness
more Assertive and Serious Minded tendencies, has a much whilst women were found to be higher in gregariousness
harder edge. Combined with Social Assuredness and less of an (i.e. sociability – more outgoing), anxiety, trust and
Affiliative tendency, the male engagement style is likely to be tendermindedness. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae, famed
more forthright and challenging. for their work in the development of the Big 5 model, along


Differences in Predisposition / Results and Discussion 3

Dimension Direction of difference

Anxiety Women more tense, less relaxed

Self Esteem Women higher self conscious, lower self esteem

Impulsivity Women more impulsive, less disciplined

Change Orientation Women more incremental, less radical

Information Processing Women more practical, less conceptual

Implementation Style Women more outcome orientated, less spontaneous

Conscientiousness Women more conscientious, less cursory

Achievement Women more perfectionist, less pragmatic

Sociability Women more outgoing, less reserved

Assertiveness Women higher in accepting, lower in assertiveness

Hedonism Women more fun loving, less serious minded

Affiliation Women more affiliative, less unaffiliative

Conformity Women more conforming, less dissenting

Modesty Women more modest, less assuming

Influence Women more consensual, less persuasive

Ambitiousness Women more content, less ambitious

Energy Women more energetic, less paced

Table 1: The significant predisposition differences of men and women

with Antonio Terracciano5 replicated and expanded upon Michael Kirton’s well known Adaptor-Innovator model has
these findings across a broader range of traits in a more consistently shown men to be more innovative and women
recent meta-analysis6, finding that women tend to be higher to be more adaptive7. These findings have been reliably
in Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Warmth and Openness to recorded across cultures. In relation to GPI™, Innovators
Feelings, whilst men tend to be higher in Assertiveness and are Revolutionary and Cursory whilst Adaptors are more
Openness to Ideas (shown in the present study through higher Conscientious and Evolutionary. We can find from the current
Revolutionary, Conceptual and Intuitive ‘scores’). Costa et al study that the male population is a more innovative one in
make note of the fact that the variation is greater between predisposition terms.
individuals within genders than it is between the genders, Although both reliable and valid, firm conclusions cannot
something we would not deny (we are looking at the average be drawn from predisposition data alone on the imbalance
profiles of men and women, which doesn’t mean all women between men and women in senior roles in the workplace. It
are Accepting), but conclude that “gender differences are is behaviour which sets individuals apart and it is (or should
modest in magnitude, consistent with gender stereotypes, be) behaviour which an organisation bases its personnel
and replicable across cultures” (p 328). decisions on. Nevertheless, the data undoubtedly points


4 Results and Discussion


Male Female

Incremental Cognition Radical Incremental Cognition Radical
Evolutionary Revolutionary Evolutionary Revolutionary

Practical Conceptual Practical Conceptual

Rational Intuitive Rational Intuitive

Focused Conscientiousness, Attainment Flexible Conscientiousness, Attainment
Focused Flexible
Outcome Spontaneous Outcome Spontaneous

Conscientious Cursory Conscientious Cursory

Perfectionist Pragmatic Perfectionist Pragmatic

Driven Conscientiousness, Drive Measured Conscientiousness, Drive
Driven Measured
Persuasive Consensual Persuasive Consensual

Ambitious Content Ambitious Content

Energetic Paced Energetic Paced

Extravert Extraversion Introvert Extraversion
Extravert Introvert

Outgoing Reserved Outgoing Reserved

Assertive Accepting Assertive Accepting

Fun Loving Serious Minded Fun Loving Serious Minded

Soc. Assured Soc. Uncertain Soc. Assured Soc. Uncertain

Collectivist Agreeableness Individualist Agreeableness
Collectivist Individualist

Affiliative Unaffiliative Affiliative Unaffiliative

Trusting Questioning Trusting Questioning

Conforming Dissenting Conforming Dissenting

Modest Assuming Modest Assuming

Self-Contained Emotionality Expressive Emotionality
Self-Contained Expressive
Relaxed Tense Relaxed Tense

Placid Discontented Placid Discontented

Optimistic Pessimistic Optimistic Pessimistic

Self Confident Self Conscious Self Confident Self Conscious

Disciplined Impulsive Disciplined Impulsive

Male Female
Figure 1: The average profiles of men and women2


Results and Discussion 5

Likely strengths of the Likely strengths of the
average profile for women average profile for men
Works well in a structured environment
Working in less well defined structures
Delivers well on defined tasks

Finds fostering warm relationships built on trust engaging Finds politically orientated relationship building engaging

People minded and comfortable in group environments Independently minded and less group orientated

Responds well to supportive, coaching style management Responds well to less supportive, coaching style management

Table 2: Advantages and strengths of different predisposition profiles

towards the need to do further research, this time looking
at the factor which distinguishes high from average or poor
performers: that is behaviour.

Behaviour
Any individual that has to achieve through others has a
leadership challenge. The challenge is to build a positive
3. Positional
Climate (how it ‘feels’ in an organisation) and win the Building capability and empowering others through effective
engagement of employees, galvanising their support for the delegation
achievement of the organisation’s goals and in the process,
driving up organisational performance. Irrespective of the size
or scope of this challenge, it is the leader’s behaviour which
4. Constructive
determines whether they will be successful. Maintaining open and healthy relationships within and outside
Through our research and consulting work, we have measured the team; dealing with difficult situations early on
and observed six behavioural approaches to leadership. None
of these approaches should be used exclusively or at the 5. Democratic
expense of any other. In fact, in order to create an engaging
Climate, leaders should utilise all of the approaches. The Involving others in decision-making and planning activities,
situation should dictate which approach or combination of building trust and encouraging others to put forward ideas
approaches is used at any one time. The approaches are as and suggestions; avoiding coercion
follows:
6. Developmental
1. Directional Developing others to fully realise their career aspirations,
Providing a clear sense of direction and purpose and aligning as well as enhancing current performance; building the
what happens on the ground, day-to-day, to that overall goal organisation’s capability for the future

2. Engaging
Engaging the commitment and enthusiasm of others to build
energy and momentum


6 Results and Discussion / Behaviour


Thinking about behaviour in terms of these six approaches is All are orientated towards showing pro-activity and direction.
complicated, particularly from a behavioural skills training
Over the last 25 years we have measured and observed these
perspective. However, these six approaches can be grouped
dimensions in approximately 20,000 individuals. Within this
into two dimensions. The first dimension is highly people-
time, we have seen leaders who display high levels of concern
focused. The approaches that fit within this dimension are:
whilst others display low levels. The former can be described
• Engaging as being Concerned For People whilst the latter can be
• Developmental described as being Indifferent Towards People. Similarly, we
• Democratic have witnessed leaders who display high levels of directional
behaviour and others who display virtually no direction at all.
They are linked by the commonality of ‘showing concern’ for
Within this dimension, the former can be thought of as being
other individuals. By ‘concern’ we do not mean ‘nice’. Rather,
Directive and the latter as being Passive8.
there is recognition by the leader that for success, people are
important. Our research has led to the development of the Glowinkowski™
The second dimension has more of a task-focus. The Model of Behaviour. The basic premise behind the model is
approaches that fit within this dimension are: that the two dimensions cannot be looked at in isolation;
in fact, they go hand in hand - whilst a leader is displaying
• Directional
directive behaviour (high or low), they are also displaying a
• Positional level of concern. In the model therefore, the two factors are
• Constructive combined, creating four behavioural styles as seen in figure 2.

DIRECTIVE (Proactive)
A

DIRECTIVE DIRECTIVE
and and
INDIFFERENT CONCERNED
A
A

(Towards People) (For People)

PASSIVE PASSIVE
and and

A
PASSIVE (Reactive)
Figure 2.
The Glowinkowski™ Model of Behaviour


Behaviour 7

The characteristics of the sides that make up the dimensions
are as follows:
• Directive: Proactive - Taking the lead, being in charge,
driving forward, making things happen, task focused, • Hostile • Assertive
exercising control • Inflexible • Flexible
• Concerned: For People - displaying respect, interested, • Over-demanding • Information
• Controlling seeking
empathising and sensitive to the feelings, needs, etc. of
• Narrow-minded • Results-minded
others
• Talks rather than • Involving
• Passive: Reactive - unresisting, following others, concedes, listens
abdicating control, submitting responsibility
• Indifferent: Towards People - lacking regard, uncaring, not • Detached • Too friendly
sensitive to the feelings, needs, etc. of others • Cagey • Unstructured
• Defensive • Conciliatory
Each style is characterised by a different set of behaviours as • Uninterested • Conceding
described below: • Uninvolved • Indirect
• Wary • Non-
demanding
Red 1 (Control and Demand)
Red 1 behaviour is typically dominant and dictatorial. Red
1 uses authority and position to intimidate, pressurise and
force others. Communication takes the form of ‘I’ll talk, you
listen’; collaboration is by no means the Red 1’s top priority, Figure 3. Characteristics of the four styles
preferring to go it alone.

Amber 2 (Avoid and Abdicate)
It is important to understand several things when thinking
Amber 2 leadership behaviour is cautious and distant. The about this model and the behaviour that the quadrants
Amber 2 style is to hold off and as they see it, let others describe:
make the mistakes. Amber 2 is typified by a pessimistic view
that people cannot be lead to develop and improve their
• No one behaves in just one of these four ways. An
individual’s behaviour is far more dynamic than that,
performance. Characteristically speaking, Amber 2 takes a
displaying characteristics from each of the quadrants as
back seat and ‘leads’ from afar.
they go about their roles

Green 3 (Befriend and Pacify) • Individual behaviours always fit within one of the four
quadrants
Green 3 behaviour is disorganised and unplanned. Green 3 is • Individuals should not be labelled as Red 1, Amber 2,
geared towards being liked, tending to be overly agreeable Green 3 or Blue 4. It is behaviour which is being observed
and undemanding. It is highly sociable, often too much so, and and thus it is behaviour which should be categorised
results are not pursued with any great determination. Raising
contentious issues can be difficult for a person displaying
• Behaviour is not personality. Behavioural styles from
each of the four quadrants can be adopted in a single
Green 3 because they want to keep things harmonious.
interaction, but personality remains constant and
unchanged
Blue 4 (Challenge and Engage)
Behaviour can be observed and therefore measured.
Blue 4 behaviours combine a directional, proactive approach However, for the purpose of research studies and consultancy
with concern for others. Behaviour tends to be results focused interventions, we measure it using a 360 degree tool called
but collaborative and open to considering the opinions of the Engagement Style Inventory (ESI). ESI provides an
others in setting direction. Communication is two-way and individual with feedback relating to the style in which they
candid. Blue 4 galvanizes support and motivates through deliver certain behaviours, i.e. whether they perform in a Red
considering and being responsive to the individual. 1, Amber 2, Green 3 or Blue 4 way.


8 Behaviour


Differences in Behaviour
Data was analysed for a subsample of the GPI™ sample that had the same as in the personality analysis. For the ESI - a
attended GIL behavioural skills training and had completed ESI respondent measure which combines both normative and
beforehand. Including 70 men and 37 women, the proportion ranking styles of questioning - each of the participants had
of women in the study (a little over a third) was approximately their behaviour rated by at least three other people.

Results and Discussion
In competency terms, the similarity in all but Red 1
Blue Green Amber Red
behaviour suggests that the competency profiles of men
4 3 2 1
and women are alike. We’re likely to see a similar level of
Male 50.7 17.6 13.5 18.2 threshold behaviours between men and women which
lead to good performance. The less abrasive, more
Female 49.0 17.3 12.4 21.2 collaborative style reported for men however suggests
they are more likely to deliver a greater level of the
Table 3: Behavioural style scores reported by immediate reports differentiating, truly added-value behaviours. The
differentiating elements are those that gain commitment
It is clear from the data that the difference in behaviour amongst direct reports, increase discretionary effort and
between men and women, as rated by immediate reports, encourage them to transcend personal goals for the goals of
is not a pronounced one. Behavioural style was shown the organisation. Such transformational leadership develops
to be similar across Blue 4, Amber 2 and Green 3. The others and increases the talent pool of an organisation. These
difference between men and women was found to be more are the behaviours which we have found through our research
substantial however for Red 1 Behaviour with women scoring to most impact business performance.
significantly higher than men (Female mean = 21.2 , Male
Through an understanding of this framework and practice,
mean = 18.2, F(1,105)=4.465, p<.05). This difference suggests
individuals can increase their level of differentiating
that individuals working for females perceive their manager
behaviours. There is no reason why women cannot compete
to be cooler, more top-down and less democratic than do
individuals who have male managers. on a level playing field with men. This difference is one which
can be overcome through behavioural skills training.
A Red 1 style is synonymous with what McGregor (1961)
refers to as Theory X management. Theory X is coercive and However, there could be a very different explanation for
controlling, affords little autonomy on behalf of reports and the findings of this study. It may be a result of the negative
prevents them from using initiative. This style stamps out any perception held towards women in the workplace. If the high
entrepreneurial input from others and whilst it may deliver proportion of men in leadership roles means that leadership
results in the short term, is not conducive to long term is still seen as a male occupation, women are going to be
performance. perceived differently as leaders. The woman who delivers
stereotypically male behaviours is seen negatively whilst
As well as offering some explanation for the difference in
the man is seen as stereotypically male. This of course
fortune between male and female leaders, the difference also
works in the other direction as well, where men delivering
suggests there is some interplay between the predisposition
stereotypically female behaviours are seen differently to
data and the ESI data. We have previously said that behaviour
and predisposition are different and that an individual women. The important point is that men and women can
predisposed to behave in one way can behave in another. do exactly the same things and yet be viewed differently
However, effective delivery of ‘out of character’ behaviour for it. This is clearly a socio-cultural problem and needs to
demands practice. Where a behaviour is being ‘forced’ it can be be addressed at that level. However, the immediate answer
delivered in a gauche way and appear to others as abrupt. This to the problem is the same as if the problem is caused by
appears to be happening with the way women deliver Directive predisposition: behavioural skills training. Behavioural skills
behaviour. Given the combination of lower assertiveness and training can help an individual to appreciate their individual
serious mindedness than in men and higher levels of self doubt, characteristics, the characteristics of the people and situation
Directive behaviour is likely to be more of an ‘out of character’ around them and the way to manage themselves in order to
form of behaviour and therefore cause problems. get the best performance out of their team.


Differences in Behaviour / Results and Discussion 9

Behavioural Skills Training
GIL use a well researched and proven methodology called Business performance indicators measured over the same
Engagement Through Leadership Skills (ETLS) which helps period showed substantial improvements. For example, debt
individuals to up their leadership game. On many occasions recovery in terms of gross collections went up by 27%, the
individuals have gone through this process in team and numbers of letters managed (folded, inserted and franked)
individual settings and then delivered improved leadership. increased by 100% over the same period of the previous year,
For example, we collected data recently for a management help desk calls went up by 30% on the previous year with
higher service standards recorded.
group within a financial services company using the ESI, put
them through the ETLS programme and then collected ESI As we would expect, female improvement was found to be
data again six months later. According to their immediate on a par with male improvement. At an individual level, one
reports, the leaders were found to have delivered statistically female in particular delivered a considerable improvement
significant higher levels of Blue 4 behaviour and lower levels in her leadership performance. Although seen by senior
of Red 1, Amber 2 and Green 3. management as talented, ESI showed she was seen by her
direct reports as having leadership issues. Following ETLS, the
re-measure of ESI showed she had improved in Blue 4 by 27%.
This impressive shift in behaviour was accompanied by rises in
her performance as a leader, her team’s performance and her
Blue Green Amber Red
personal wellbeing. Although anecdotal, this case study shows
4 3 2 1
how the ETLS programme represents a practical process for
Pre ETLS 51.2 18.8 12.3 17.6 improving leadership delivery.
The ETLS programme can be specifically tailored towards
Post ETLS 55.3 16.9 11.5 16.3 women in the workplace, acknowledging the fact that there
are extra challenges from a socio-cultural perspective that
Table 4: Behavioural change following ETLS women need to overcome.

Key Conclusions and Recommendations
To ignore gender differences in personality is to ignore Clearly men need to modify their behaviour as well. The
diversity. In predisposition terms men are different to results of behavioural training for both men and women
women, this is natural and to be expected. The implications are potentially huge. The outcome for both groups is a
of this natural difference are that the gender groups are positive one and similar, i.e. a modification of the way they
going to be more comfortable in different sets of behaviour. behave, influencing the way they are seen by others and
The recommendation is that training development needs how successful they are. The journey to behavioural change
to provide the opportunity for each gender group to learn is different however. Given the average personality and
different behavioural skills. The development for men and behaviour of the two groups, i.e. where they are coming
women is therefore not necessarily the same. from and what they do, the actions required to change are
As Sir David Walker, former director of the Bank of England different. This should be taken into account when considering
states , “we need to change the culture and have a behavioural training for men and women.
much better understanding that boards are not golf club Specifically, in order to help women to achieve their potential
committees.” The answer is a long term one and therefore at the senior levels of management, we would recommend
the situation is one which women, in the short term, have to the following:
be aware of. However, if culture is the sum of all that we do
1. Women need to be provided with the opportunity to
and therefore shaped by behaviour, women can in the short
develop their leadership skills towards being more
term behave their way out of the issue and begin to change
Directive and Concerned For People, i.e. Blue 4, in a way
the culture. Behavioural skills training through ETLS can go a
that recognises their particular predisposition patterns
long way to helping women adapt their behaviour so they are
perceived differently in the workplace and ultimately help 2. Managers of women need to be aware that given the
them to redress the balance. predisposition profile of women, together with the


10 Behavioural Skills Training / Key Conclusions and Recommendations


prejudices in how they are perceived in general, it is 4. To get the most out of an organisation’s current and future
critical women are provided with the opportunity to management talent a broad range of leaders need to go
experience as much Blue 4 behaviour from their manager through the same training
as possible, i.e. great behaviour begets great behaviour 5. Men are not immune. The traditional yet dated biases
3. Leadership skills training provides the opportunity for towards men in the workplace should not cloud the fact
women to learn skills that enable them to engage more that they can make substantial improvements to their
effectively with all stakeholders leadership as well

Endnotes
1
As is stated by the American Psychological Association (APA 4
Feingold, A. (1994). Gender differences in personality: A
Publication Manual, 4th Edition, 1994), gender is cultural and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429-456
sex is biological. Whether the differences are down to culture 5
Costa, P.T., Terracciano, A. and McCrae, R.R. (2001).
or gender is not the subject of this paper. For simplicity and
Gender Differences in Personality Across Cultures: Robust
in line with past research in the area, gender differences will
and Surprising Findings. Journal of Personality and Social
be adopted.
Psychology, 81, 322-331
2
The difference of one ‘sten’, although small, is consistent 6
Meta-analysis is a statistical method that combines
in the large sample and does have noticeable implications. It
the results of studies looking at the same question and
is likely to be the case that the actual differences between
determines whether a particular finding is consistent across
men and women are more marked than we have found here.
studies and therefore valid. Meta-analysis is capable of
Whilst the sample for both men and women is sound, the
aggregating data from many thousands of individuals.
disproportion of men in senior leadership positions suggests
that the male sample is likely to be more representative of
7
e.g. Kirton, M.J. (1976). Adaptors and Innovators: A
the broader male population than the female sample is to description and measure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61,
be of the broader female population. The female sample is 622-629. Foxall, G.R. (1992). Gender differences in cognitive
more likely to sit away from the centre of the distribution styles of MBA students in three countries. Psychological
curve therefore. If the sample was not limited by consisting Reports, 70, 169-170
predominantly of middle to senior managers and instead 8
It should be noted that the concept of two broad factors
represented a broader spectrum of the population, the male – one task and the other people focused - underpinning
sample would remain relatively constant whilst the female leadership effectiveness is not necessarily a new one. Halpin
would probably change slightly, most likely differentiating it and Weiner (1957) identified the factors of ‘Consideration’
further from the male sample. and ‘Initiation of Structure’ as explaining the majority of
3
For a full review of these experiments see Mischel, W., variance in leadership behaviour. Blake and Mouton’s (1964)
Shoda, Y. and Rodriguez, M.L. Science, New Series, Vol. 244, Managerial Grid Model references ‘Concern for Production’
No 4907 (May 26, 1989), 933-938 and ‘Concern for People’.


Endnotes 11

Appendix
Summary of the GPI™ Domains and Dimensions

DOMAINS DIMENSIONS and SUB-DIMENSIONS
Bi-Polar Sub-Dimension Bi-Polar Sub-Dimension
COGNITION Incremental Radical
Change Orientation Evolutionary Revolutionary
Information Processing Practical Conceptual
Decision Making Rational Intuitive
ATTAINMENT Focused Flexible
Focused
Implementation Style Outcome Spontaneous
Conscientious Conscientious Cursory
Achievement Perfectionist Pragmatist
DRIVE Driven Measured
Power Persuasive Planner Strategist
Consensual
Ambition Ambitious Contented
Incremental

Energy Energetic Paced
EXTRAVERSION Extraversion Introversion
Sociable Outgoing Reserved
Practitioner Visionary
Assertiveness Asserting Accepting
Hedonism Fun loving Serious-minded
Social Poise Socially assured Socially uncertain
AGREEABLENESS Collectivist Individualist
Affiliation Affiliative Flexible Unaffiliative

Trust Trusting Questioning
Conformity Conforming Dissenting
Modesty Modest Assuming
EMOTIONALITY Self-Contained Expressive
Anxiety Relaxed Tense
Hostility Placid Discontented
Optimism Optimistic Pessimistic
Self-Esteem Confident Self-Conscious
Impulsive Disciplined Impulsive


12 Appendix
Introduction


Cognition

Incremental Radical

Evolutionary Revolutionary
• Prefers step by step change • Prefers radical, big shift change
• Emphasis on improvement • Emphasis on finding new ways
• Uncomfortable with radical change • May generate too many ideas
Practical Conceptual
• Prefers more tightly defined models to mitigate risk of • Prefers to take information from a variety of apparently
misunderstanding disconnected sources
• Relates data directly to the problem at hand • Considers more ambiguous, less coherent data
• Generates solutions to the immediate issue • Generates solutions for tomorrow’s issues and problems
Rational Intuitive
• Preference for facts • Preference for gut feeling
• Decision-making based on evidence • Decision-making instinctive
• Potential to over-analyse situation • Decision-making potentially not seen as thought through
- not based on fact

Conscientiousness - Attainment

Focused Flexible

Outcome Spontaneous
• Enjoys having a clear and specific aim or target to focus • Prefers open ended, unstructured approach towards
on delivery
• Prefers a planned, structured approach e.g. a to-do list • Holds a ready acceptance for change
• May be resistant to necessary changes in approach and • Potential for lack of clarity towards outcome
aim/target

Conscientious Cursory
• Enjoys working in the detail of a task • Preference for the main points over the detail
• Thorough, takes pleasure in 'dotting the Is and crossing • Doesn't feel the need to get into the detail
the Ts' • May miss crucial information
• May fail to see the wood for the trees
Perfectionist Pragmatic
• Driven to exceed against a standard of excellence - • If it works, fit for purpose is fine
quality is everything • Likes to get the job done rather than focus on standards
• Enjoys constantly raising the bar of execution
• May waste time seeking high standards beyond fit for • Quality may take second place to delivery
purpose


Appendix 13

Conscientiousness - Drive

Driven Measured

Persuasive Consensual
• Preference for managing the actions of others • Preference for being part of a group when making
• Enjoys making an input decisions
• Enjoys positions of influence • Seeks the views of others
• Prefers positions that aren’t in authority
Ambitious Contented
• Success is about promotion, moving ‘onwards and • Success is about comfort in position and experience of
upwards’ an interesting job
• Interested in positions of importance, status and • Little desire for prestige, status and power symbols
prestigious situations • Less driven by the achievement of personal career goals
• Driven by personal career success
Energetic Paced
• Works at a brisk pace • Approaches work in a measured way
• Animated, enthusiastic and decisive • Makes steady progress, avoids hasty decision-making
• May be overly hasty in decision-making • Prefers time to think before taking action

Extraversion

Extraversion Introversion

Outgoing Reserved
• Thinks by talking • Thinks by thinking
• Energised through interaction with others • Energised through thinking and reflection
• May need to put aside more time for reflection • May switch off in a social environment
Assertive Accepting
• Forthright and expressive with views • Prefers to keep own counsel rather than outwardly
• Tends to speak own mind express thoughts
• May appear as overly dominant and directive • Appears thoughtful, reflective
• May be overly submissive
Fun Loving Serious Minded
• Holds pleasure seeking behaviour as a priority • Prioritises fulfilment of obligations as top priority
• Needs social stimulation • Takes position and responsibilities seriously - even having
• Could be seen as flippant and not serious about fun
responsibilities • Can be seen as overly serious
Socially Assured Socially Uncertain
• Comfortable engaging in social groups • Prefers one to ones over large groups
• Comfortable at building a broad range of relationships • Socially selective
• Possibly not socially selective • May avoid networking opportunities


14 Appendix


Agreeableness

Collectivist Individualist

Affiliative Unaffiliative
• Has a need for harmonious relationships • Harmonious relationships not top priority
• Likes to be liked • Comfortable surfacing difficult issues if necessary
• May feel uncomfortable surfacing difficult issues with • May be seen as putting objectives over people
others

Trusting Questioning
• Takes people at face value • Cautious of others' hidden agendas
• Engages with others in an open and straightforward • Unlikely to take people at face value
manner • Tends not to open up with others
• Runs risk of being naive
Conforming Dissenting
• Thinking tends to be in agreement with predominant • Thinking tends to differ from predominant view of the
view of the group group
• Likes and buys into the views of others • Often disagrees with others' views
• Too agreeable in buying into status quo • May be seen as unnecessarily challenging
Modest Assuming
• Considers the group's achievement rather than own • Comfortable communicating their achievements and
• May 'hide light under a bushel' contributions
• Potentially doesn't promote own profile • Comfortable promoting own and others' successes
• Doesn't celebrate others' successes • May appear boastful


Introduction 15

Emotionality

Self-Contained Expressive

Relaxed Tense
• Tends to be calm in stressful situations • Tends to feel high levels of worry
• Tends not to get anxious • Element of tension may give an edge
• Potential to be seen as laid back • May get worked up in stressful situations
Placid Discontented
• Comfortable with life's journey thus far • Ill at ease with life's journey thus far, possibly causing
• At ease with their position in life anger or regret
• May not always be as driven as they need to be • May cause a positive fire in the belly
• Can be seen as angry and hostile
Optimistic Pessimistic
• Looks for the positives • Looks for the negatives
• Looks at the future as full of opportunities • Thinks about possible downsides or problems when
• Encouraging towards others looking at the future
• May be overly positive • Holds a sense of realism
• May be overly negative
Confident Self Conscious
• Has a positive self image • Has a negative self image
• Shortcomings are not seen as representing troublesome • May be overly self critical and focus on shortcomings
issues • May inhibit realising full potential
• May appear as overly confident
Disciplined Impulsive
• Shows self control • Tends to be quick and decisive
• Hard to read, appearing closed • Readily shows feelings
• Maintains a hold over desires and impulses • May struggle to control desires and impulses


16 Appendix


Gender Differences in Education
Gender differences in personality have considerable Research looking at associations between the Big 5
implications in education. Our experience in this sector personality traits and preferred assessment methods carried
has shown us the impact and value of GPI™ and ETLS driven out by Adrian Furnham and colleagues1 at University College
interventions for teaching staff and leadership teams. On London shows moderately strong and highly significant
many occasions we have facilitated workshops where several relationships between Conscientiousness and continuous
years’ relationship building and interpersonal understanding assessment (i.e. coursework, dissertations) and between
have taken place in just a few hours. The application of the Openness and traditional timed exams. In our lexicon, high
Glowinkowski approach and the data reported in this paper Openness is someone high in Radical thinking.
does not stop with adults however. Our research shows that females are higher in the traits of
This year, for the first time in over a decade, GCSE results conscientiousness and therefore are comfortable working
showed boys were outperforming girls in maths. This towards a defined goal, getting the details right and raising
longstanding gender divide follows changes to the assessment the bar in terms of standards. Working hard and dutifully
of maths two years ago where coursework was scrapped in over a long period of time, both things which coursework
favour of traditional exams. Many have cited this change as necessitates, are natural strengths of the average female
the cause for the reversal in performance levels. Dr John personality profile. In comparison, males score lower on these
Dunford, General Secretary of the Association of School and dimensions of personality and higher on the dimensions of
College Leaders (ASCL) said, “It clearly shows how the type of Radical thinking linked to preference for exams.
assessment directly affects achievement”. Dr Mike Cresswell, Personality data tells us about an individual’s approach
Head of the AQA exam board stated, “It’s well established towards something, i.e. the style of their behaviour.
that girls outperform boys at coursework”. Coursework and exams are therefore likely to be the
So why has the change in assessment method made such an preferred assessment method for girls and boys respectively.
impact in such a short period of time? Coursework is being Preference tends to sit with motivation and motivation tends
phased out in other areas of the curriculum to be replaced to sit with performance so this data may provide some insight
by ‘controlled assessment’ due to concerns over the potential into competency as well.
for copying from the internet and asking others, most This year coursework has been removed from the GCSE syllabus
notably parents, for help. It’s unlikely that the changes in of economics, psychology, law, religious studies and sociology.
performance can be put down to integrity and the eradication Given the findings of this study and the impact of assessment
of cheating however. There is a more likely explanation in the changes in maths on the relative performance of boys and
form of personality. girls this year, it is likely we will see the gender imbalance in
education reduced more widely over the coming years.

1
Furnham, A., Christopher, A., Garwood, J. & Martin, N.G. (2008)
Ability, demography, learning style and personality trait correlates
of student preference for assessment method. Educational
Psychology, 28, 15-27


Appendix 17

Glowinkowski International Limited
5 St Peter’s Court, Middleborough, Colchester, Essex, CO1 1WD. United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1206 710945 Fax +44 (0)1206 576910
www.glowinkowski.com

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