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Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 
AND TECHNOLOGY (IJMET) 
ISSN 0976 – 6340 (Print) 
ISSN 0976 – 6359 (Online) 
Volume 5, Issue 9, September (2014), pp. 71-80 
© IAEME: www.iaeme.com/IJMET.asp 
Journal Impact Factor (2014): 7.5377 (Calculated by GISI) 
www.jifactor.com 
71 
 
IJMET 
© I A E M E 
EFFECT OF SHORT GLASS FIBER AND FILLERS ON DRY SLIDING 
WEAR BEHAVIOUR OF THERMOPLASTIC COPOLYESTER 
ELASTOMER COMPOSITES 
R. Hemanth1, Prakash Sam Thomas2, B. Suresha3, M. Sekar4 
1, 2, 4Karunya School of Mechanical Science, Karunya University, Coimbatore, India 
3Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Engineering, Mysore, India 
ABSTRACT 
The dry sliding wear behaviour of thermoplastic copolyester elastomer (TCE) reinforced with fibers and fillers 
were slid against a steel counterface of a pin-on-disc tribometer. The filler and fiber reinforcements used are 
polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE), short glass fiber (SGF), short carbon fiber (SCF), silicon carbide (SiC), and alumina 
(Al2O3). The parameters like filler content, sliding velocity and sliding distance on the specific wear rate have been 
investaigated. In this study, a plan of experiments based on the techniques of Taguchi was performed to acquire data in a 
controlled way. An orthogonal array L27 (313) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were applied to study the influence of 
process parameters on the specific wear rate of TCE based composites. The experimental results reveal that the effect of 
filler content was the major parameter on specific wear rate, followed by the sliding distance. The sliding velocity, 
however, was found to have a neglecting effect. The worn surface topographies show asssorted features like tendency of 
the matrix to adhere towards the fiber, network of microcracks, less debris formation, agglomeration of debris and 
broken fibers on the sliding distance and velocity employed. 
Keywords: TCE Based Composites, Taguchi’s Design of Experiments, Specific Wear Rate, Worn Surface Morphology. 
1. INTRODUCTION 
Polymers and their composites possess a unique combination of physical properties that are either unattainable 
or difficult to reproduce in metal and ceramic materials. Polymer composites occupy a considerable market share 
nowadays as one of the most common engineering materials. They provide a combination of various advantages, such as 
ease in manufacturing, cost effectiveness and excellent performance, which cannot be attained by metals, ceramics, or 
polymers alone [1]. In recent years, polymer composites have been extensively used to replace metallic materials in 
engineering applications involving friction and wear. The advantages of polymers such as self lubricity, light weight, 
corrosion resistant and ease of processing have allowed them to be the best choice [2]. Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE’s) 
concern large industrial and commercial fields, as well as academic and applied research. They are novel constructional 
polymers, which are physically cross-linked materials made up of a thermoplastic and an elastomer. Applications include 
flexible couplings, ski boots, gears, high pressure hose lines, outer coverings for wire and optical fiber cables, seals, etc. 
[3]. The choice of an appropriate matrix is of great importance in the design of wear resistant polymer composites. The 
concept of adding particles of micro or nanoscale into polymers is one of the most intriguing subjects in the recent 
decades. Fiber reinforcements like glass, carbon, and aramid fibers have frequently been applied in order to improve 
mechanical properties. Solid lubricants (polytetrafluroethylene and graphite) are proved to be very helpful in developing
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 
17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 
a transfer film between the two counterparts and could drastically reduce the frictional coefficient of the composites [4]. 
Polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) possesses low coefficient of friction, low stick–slip and high levels of anti-adhesive 
properties, which make it a potential candidate for adhesive wear process. Unfortunately, PTFE has the following 
drawbacks: low Young’s modulus, high visco-elasticity and poor wear resistance [5]. While, short fibre reinforcements, 
such as carbon, glass and aramid fibers, could effectively improve the wear resistance of polymer composites by 
undergoing most of the load during sliding processes. Short glass fiber (SGF) exhibited better adhesive wear 
performance in severe operating conditions (applied load, sliding velocity, and sliding distance) [6]. Short carbon fiber 
(SCF), is widely advocated as a decisive reinforcement component, show a remarkable capability to increase the wear 
resistance [7]. Silicon carbide (SiC) particles have shown an increased wear resistance in dry sliding (adhesive) wear of 
polymer composites [6]. The alumina (Al2O3) particles in polymer would strengthen the mechanical properties of 
polymer composites [8]. 
72 
 
The objective of this research work is to evaluate the influence of fibers and fillers on wear rate and influence of 
independent parameters such as sliding distance, filler content, and sliding velocity on wear performance of 
thermoplastic copolyester elastomers (TCE) reinforced composites using design of experiments (DOE). The fibers and 
fillers reinforcements used in TCE are SGF, SCF, PTFE, silicon carbide (SiC), and Al2O3. DOE was applied to study the 
various parameters affecting the specific wear rate. The information generally comprises the relationship between 
product and process parameters and the desired performance characteristic. In any process, the desired testing parameters 
were either determined based on experience or by use of a handbook. It, however, does not provide optimal testing 
parameters for a particular situation. Thus, numerous mathematical models based on statistical regression techniques 
have been constructed to select the proper cutting or testing conditions. The Taguchi’s design can further simplify by 
expending the application of the traditional experimental designs to the use of orthogonal array. This method is a simple, 
efficient and systematic approach to optimize designs for performance, quality and cost [9]. 
Majority of research studied detailed experimental work i.e., the effect of one factor by keeping all other factors 
fixed, this approach is not advisable because in an actual environment there will be combined effects of interacting 
factors influencing the abrasive wear. Hence in this investigation an attempt is being made to study the interacting effects 
of factors along with the main effect. In this paper, influence of filler content, sliding distance and sliding velocity on the 
specific wear rate of TCE based composites was explored using Taguchi’s design of experiments. Dry slidng wear tests 
were carried out on a pin-on-disc tribometer. Tribological tests were carried out at room temperature, adopting L27 
ortogonal array. The experimental results were analyzed by using analysis of means and variance of the influence of 
factors. 
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 
2.1 Materials 
In the present research work, the materials used for making polymer composites are TCE as matrix material, 
SGF as fiber reinforcement, PTFE, SCF, SiC and Al2O3 as filler reinforcement. The sources of these materials are listed 
in Table 1. 
2.2 Fabrication of composites 
The polymer granules, fibers and fillers were dried at 75º C for 10 h in an oven before compounding. Selected 
compositions were mixed and extruded in Barbender co-rotating twin-screw extruder (Make: CMEI, Model: 16CME, 
SPL, chamber size 70 cm3). The mixing speed of 100 rpm was maintained for all the compositions. The extrudates from 
the die were quenched in cold water and then pelletized. In the melt blending, the temperature profile of the extrusion 
were zone1 (200º C), zone 2 (210º C), zone 3 (220º C), zone 4 (240º C) and zone 5 (260º C) respectively. The extrudates 
of the compositions were pelletized using pelletizing machine. The details of the composites fabricated for present 
investigation are given in Table 2. The pellets of the extrudates were pre-dried at 100º C in vacuum oven for 24 h and 
injection moulded in a reciprocating screw injection moulding machine (Windsor, 50 T), to produce test specimens. The 
processing temperature at zone 1 (220º C) and zone 2 (250º C) were maintained respectively. The mould temperature 
was maintained at 35º C. 
Table 1: Supplier details of the materials procured 
Polymer/Filler Source and supplier 
TCE Gargi Enterprises, Bengaluru 
PTFE Du Pont Co. Ltd. 
SGF Fine organics, Mumbai 
SCF Fine organics, Mumbai 
SiC Carborundum India Ltd. 
Al2O3 Triveni groups
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 
17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 
Matrix material (wt %) Composition (wt %) 
TCE Particulate fillers 
1 80 20 PTFE 
2 68 12 PTFE + 20 SGF 
3 60 10 PTFE + 17.5 SGF + 2.5 SCF + 5 SiC + 5 Al2O3 
Parameters Units Tested values 
Sliding velocity m/s 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 
Sliding distance m 2000, 4000 and 6000 
Normal load N 40 constant 
73 
2.3 Wear testing 
 
The dry sliding wear tests were performed on a pin on disc tribometer (Magnum Engineers, Bengaluru) setup as 
per ASTM G 99-05 standard. The photograph of the test apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. 
Table 2: Constituents of TCE based composites 
Sl. No. 
Fig. 1: Photograph of the Pin on Disk apparatus showing 1) steel counterface, 2) sample holder and 3) load cell 
Wear test samples of size 6 mm × 6 mm × 2.5 mm are glued to steel pin of 6 mm diameter and 30 mm length 
and comes in contact with (EN31 grade, 62 HRC, 1.6 μ Ra) rotating disc. Prior to testing, the samples were polished 
against medium grade sand paper (600 grit size) to ensure proper contact with counter face. Test parameters are given 
below in Table 3. Normal load throughout the experiment is kept constant at 40 N; the pin along with the specimen was 
then weighted in an electronic balance (0.1mg accuracy). Before and after wear testing, samples were cleaned with the 
acetone to remove wear debris. 
Table 3: Test conditions for the present study 
Weight loss of the test samples gives the measure of sliding wear loss. Volume loss was calculated from 
measured weight loss using density data of the test specimen.
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 
17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 
The specific wear rate (Ws) was calculated using equation (1). 
= (1) 
I II III Units 
A : Filler content 15 32 40 % 
B : Sliding velocity 0.5 1 1.5 m/s 
C : Sliding distance 2000 4000 6000 m 
74 
 
V 
L D 
Ws 
× 
where, V the volume loss in mm3, L the load in Newton, D the sliding distance in m. 
2.4. Experimental Design 
Design of experiments (DOE) is the powerful analysis tool for modelling and analyzing the influence of the 
control factors on the performance output. The most important stage in the design of experiment lies in the selection of 
the control factors [9]. Taguchi uses a special design of orthogonal arrays to study the entire process parameter space 
with only a small number of experiments [10]. The Taguchi design of experiment approach eliminates the need for 
repeated experiments and thus saves time, material and cost. The most important stage in the design of experiment lies in 
the selection of the control factors. The Taguchi approach to experimentation provides an orderly way to collect, analyze, 
and interpret data to satisfy the objectives of the study. In the design of experiments, one can obtain the maximum 
amount of information for the amount of experimentation. Taguchi parameter design can optimize the performance 
characteristics through the setting of design. Three parameters namely filler content (A), sliding velocity (B), and sliding 
distance (C). The Table 4 given below indicates the factors and level. The experiments were conducted as per the 
orthogonal array with level of parameters given in each array row. 
The experimental observations are transformed into signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. There are several S/N ratios 
available depending on the type of characteristic, which can be calculated as logarithmic transformation of the loss 
function. 
Table 4: Control factors and levels used in the experiment 
Control factors 
Level 
For lower is the better performance characteristic S/N ratio is calculated as per the given formula: - 
y 
n 
s  
n 
= − 
2 
10log (2) 
Where “n” is the number of observations and “y” is the observed data. “Smaller is the better” characteristic, with 
the above S/N ratio transformation, is suitable for minimization of wear rate. The sliding wear test results were subject to 
the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The purpose of ANOVA is to investigate parameters which significantly affect the 
performance characteristic. With DOE and ANOVA analysis; the optimal combination of wear parameters is predicted to 
acceptable level of accuracy. The optimal process parameters obtained from the parameter design [11]. The use of 
ANOVA is to analyze the influence of wear parameters like (A) filler content, (B) sliding velocity, and (c) sliding 
distance. 
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
3.1 Analysis of control factor 
Analysis of the influence of each control factor (A, B, and C) on the specific wear rate was performed with a so-called 
S/N response table, using a Minitab 16 computer package. 
Table 5 shows the experimental plan and their results with calculated S/N ratios for the specific wear rate of 
TCE based composites. The right side of the table included the results of the specific wear rate and the calculated S/N 
ratio. Overall mean for S/N ratio was found to be 224.1818 dB. The response table of the specific wear rate is presented
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 
17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 
in Table 6. It indicates the S/N ratio at each level of control factor and how it was changed when settings of each control 
factor were changed from level 1 to level 2 and level 2 to level 3. The control factor with the strongest influence was 
determined by differences values. The higher the difference, the more influential was the control factor. It can be seen in 
Table 6 that the strongest influence was exerted by filler content (factor A), followed by sliding velocity (factor B) and 
sliding distance (factor C), respectively. 
75 
 
Table 5: Test conditions and output results using orthogonal array 
Sl. 
No. 
Filler 
content 
(wt. %) 
Sliding 
Velocity 
(m/s) 
Sliding 
distance 
(m) 
Specific wear 
rate x e-12 
(mm3/Nm) 
S/N 
ratio 
(db) 
1 15 0.5 2000 22.6250 212.98 
2 15 0.5 4000 20.3625 213.82 
3 15 0.5 6000 15.8375 216.00 
4 15 1.0 2000 21.4930 213.35 
5 15 1.0 4000 15.8375 216.00 
6 15 1.0 6000 9.0500 220.86 
7 15 1.5 2000 12.0660 218.36 
8 15 1.5 4000 6.7875 223.36 
9 15 1.5 6000 3.3937 229.38 
10 32 0.5 2000 9.0000 220.91 
11 32 0.5 4000 6.9000 223.22 
12 32 0.5 6000 4.6000 226.74 
13 32 1.0 2000 7.9850 221.95 
14 32 1.0 4000 5.3300 225.46 
15 32 1.0 6000 3.0160 230.41 
16 32 1.5 2000 7.0000 223.09 
17 32 1.5 4000 4.0000 227.95 
18 32 1.5 6000 1.3300 237.52 
19 40 0.5 2000 6.2100 224.14 
20 40 0.5 4000 6.0370 224.38 
21 40 0.5 6000 2.9000 230.75 
22 40 1.0 2000 8.6250 221.28 
23 40 1.0 4000 3.5800 228.92 
24 40 1.0 6000 2.8750 230.82 
25 40 1.5 2000 6.9000 223.22 
26 40 1.5 4000 3.4500 229.24 
27 40 1.5 6000 1.1500 238.78 
Fig. 2 shows the main effect plots for S/N ratio. Highest S/N ratio will give the minimum specific wear rate. 
From the plots it is clear that factor combination of A3B3C3, gives minimum specific wear rate. Thus minimum specific 
wear rate is obtained when filler content, sliding velocity and sliding distance is at maximum level. It is evident that 
increasing the filler content of the matrix material the specific wear rate is decreasing. It is observed that increase in the 
level of both filler content and sliding distance causes specific wear rate to decrease with the effect of filler content 
dominating the effect of sliding distance on wear rate [11]. In the case of specimen TCE filled with SGF, SCF and 
ceramic fillers addition of ceramic materials i.e. SiC will help to detach the material from the specimen. The material 
detached from specimen forms wear debris. The ceramic material forms wear path on the disc. The debris engages 
between the specimen and the counter face helps to reduce the wear rate. It is understandable that increase in sliding
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 
17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 
distance causes the transfer film formation on the wear disc and this contributes to reduce the wear rate under longer 
duration of sliding. Addition of PTFE to the polymer will cause the film formation this will decrease the wear rate [12]. 
Main Effects Plot for SN ratios 
76 
 
15 32 40 
230.0 
227.5 
225.0 
222.5 
220.0 
0.5 1.0 1.5 
2000 4000 6000 
230.0 
227.5 
225.0 
222.5 
220.0 
filler content 
Mean of SN ratios 
sliding velocity 
sliding distance 
Data Means 
Signal-to-noise: Smaller is better 
Fig. 2: Main effect plot for S/N ratio 
Table 6: Response table for S/N ratio - smaller is better 
Level Filler 
content 
Sliding 
velocity 
Sliding 
distance 
1 218.2 223 221.5 
2 226.4 223.2 223.6 
3 229.5 227.9 229.0 
delta 11.3 4.9 7.5 
rank 1 3 2 
Fig. 3 illustrates the interaction effects of control parameters. It is well known that interactions do not occur when 
the lines on the interaction plots are parallel and strong interactions occur between parameters when the lines cross. In 
order to find out the correlation of the interaction factor and wear rate ANOVA analysis carried out. 
Fig 3: Interaction plot for S/N ratio
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 
17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 
77 
3.2 ANOVA 
 
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to investigate which design parameters significantly affect the 
quality characteristic. It was accomplished by separating the total variability of the S/N ratios, which is measured by sum 
of the squared deviations from the total mean S/N ratio, into contributions by each of the design parameters and the 
errors. 
The percentage contribution of each control factor is employed to measure the effect over Ws. Table 5 shows the 
results of the ANOVA with the specific wear rate. This analysis was undertaken for a level of significance of 5% that is, 
for level of confidence 95%. Examination of the calculated values of Fishers (F) for all control factors also showed a 
very high influence of factor A and low influence of factor B on specific wear rate of TCE based composites (Table 7). 
The interaction between A x B (7.50%) have got the significant influence, A x C and B x C have got least significance in 
dry sliding wear behaviour of TCE composites. The present analysis indicates that dry sliding wear test parameters and 
their interactions have both statistical and physical significance in TCE composites. 
3.3 Worn surface morphology 
The worn surface morphology was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to study the effect of 
increase in filler content, sliding distance and sliding velocity. 
Table 7: ANOVA response table for Ws 
Source D S JS JM P% 
Filler content (A) 2 5.88801 5.88801 2.94400 55.10 
Sliding velocity (B) 2 1.47654 1.47654 0.73827 13.80 
Sliding distance (C) 2 2.01698 2.01698 1.00849 18.90 
(A x B) 4 0.80196 0.80196 0.20049 7.50 
(A x C) 4 0.32160 0.32160 0.08040 3.00 
(B x C) 4 0.08519 0.08519 0.02130 0.80 
Error 8 0.09630 0.09630 0.01204 0.90 
Total 26 10.68658 100 
S = 0.109715, R-Sq = 99.10% and R-Sq (adj) = 97.07%. 
D: DOF, degrees of freedom; S: Seq SS, sequential sum of squares; JS: Adj SS, adjusted sum of squares; JM: Adj MS, 
adjusted mean squares; P%: percentage of contribution. 
The SEM micrographs are shown in Fig. 4. The arrows show the direction of the adhesive wear. Fig. 4a and 4b 
shows the worn surface micrograph of TCE + PTFE filled composite, and Fig. 4c, 4d and 4e shows the worn surface 
micrograph of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers reinforced composite with different magnifications. The circles show the 
wear debris. P stands for debonding of PTFE particulate and SGF stands for short glass fiber. From the micrographic 
pictures we can infer that the detachment of the particles from the specimen cause wear debris. This wear debris 
entrapped between the specimen and the counter face. This will cause the reduction of the wear rate. Ray and 
Gnanamoorthy [13] explained three mechanisms namely (i) matrix material loss, (ii) filler wear, and (iii) debonding at 
the interface are operative in filled polymer composites and dominance of one factor over the other control the wear 
behaviour of composites. 
In the case of specimen with TCE and PTFE wear debris is more. In the case of specimen with TCE, PTFE and 
SGF i.e. short glass fiber is easily detached from the surface, since the glass fiber is harder than the steel material. It will 
cause wear to the disc. So wear rate decreases. In the case of specimen with TCE, PTFE, SGF, SCF, SiC, and Al2O3 
ceramic material cause wear on the counter face. The wear debris trapped inside the wear path and cause decrease in the 
wear rate.
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 
17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 
78 
 
Deep fragmentation 
Micro cracks 
P 
Severe damage 
Fig. 4a: SEM micrographs of TCE + PTFE composite slid at 6000 m, 0.5 m/s 
Cracks 
P 
Micro cracks 
Void 
Fragmentation 
Fig. 4b: SEM micrographs of TCE + PTFE composite slid at 6000 m, 1 m/s 
P 
Furrows and ridges 
Void 
Fig. 4c: SEM micrographs of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers filled composite slid at 6000 m, 0.5 m/s 
Micro crack
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 
17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 
79 
 
Fig. 4d: SEM micrographs of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers filled composite slid at 6000 m, 1 m/s 
Fig. 4e: SEM micrographs of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers filled composite slid at 6000 m, 1.5 m/s 
4. CONCLUSIONS 
Experimental investigation carried out on TCE composites to study the effect of filler content, sliding distance 
and sliding velocity on specific wear rate. The following conclusions could be drawn from the results of the dry sliding 
wear behaviour of fiber and filler filled TCE composites. 
 Specific wear rate is least in TCE composite reinforced with fiber and ceramic fillers, in comparison to that of 
TCE + PTFE and TCE + PTFE + SGF reinforced composites. A synergistic effect of the fibers and fillers on 
improving the wear resistance was reported. 
 Specific wear rate decreases with increase in sliding distance. As the filler content of the specimen increases the 
specific wear rate also decreases. From Taguchi analysis it is concluded that control factors cause significant effect 
on specific wear rate and they are ranked as filler content  sliding distance  siding velocity. 
 Ananlysis of variance provides the effect of interaction of control factors on specific wear rate. Filler content has 
more significant effect on the specific wear rate of TCE composites followed by sliding distance and sliding 
velocity. Interaction between sliding distance and sliding velocity possess more significant effect followed by 
filler content and sliding velocity on the specific wear rate of TCE composites. 
5. REFERENCES 
[1] M. Palabiyik and S. Bahadur, Tribological studies of polyamide 6 and high-density polyethylene blends filled 
with PTFE and copper oxide and reinforced with short glass fibers, Wear, 253(3–4), 2002, 369–376. 
[2] H. L. Stein, Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), Engineered Materials Handbook 1999, 
167–171. 
Furrows and ridges
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 
17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 
80 
 
[3] S. Amin and M. Amin, Thermoplastic elastomeric (TPE) materials and their use in outdoor electrical insulation, 
Advances in Material Sciences, 29, 2011, 15–30. 
[4] L. Chang and Z. Zhang, Tribological properties of epoxy nano composites Part II. A combinative effect of short 
carbon fibre with nano-TiO2, Wear, 260, 2006, 869–878. 
[5] Guijun Xian and Zhong Zhang, Sliding wear of polyetherimide matrix composites I. Influence of short carbon 
fibre reinforcement, Wear, 258, 2005, 776–782. 
[6] B. Suresha, P. Chandramohan, P. R. Sadananda Rao, P. Sampathkumaran, S. Seetharamu and Vartha 
Venkateswarlu, Friction and slide wear characteristics of glass-epoxy and glass-epoxy filled with SiCp 
composites, Indian Journal of Engineering Materials and Science, 13, 2006, 535-541. 
[7] C. Lhymn and J. Bozolla, Friction and wear of fiber reinforced PPS composites, Advances in Polymer 
Technology, 7(4), 1987, 451–61. 
[8] Y. Wang, S. Lim, J. L. Lu and Z. H. Xu, Tribological and corrosion behaviour of Al2O3/polymer 
nanocomposite coatings, Wear, 206, 2006, 976-983. 
[9] M. Sudheer, Ravikantha Prabhu, K. Raju, and Thirumaleshwara Bhat, Optimization of Dry Sliding Wear 
Performance of Ceramic Whisker Filled Epoxy Composites Using Taguchi Approach, Advances in Tribology, 
2012, 1-9 
[10] K. M. Subbaya, B. Suresha, N. Rajendra and Y. S. Varadarajan, Grey-based Taguchi approach for wear 
assessment of SiC filled carbon–epoxy composites, Materials and Design, 41, 2012, 124–130. 
[11] S. Bahadur, The development of transfer layers and their role in polymer tribology, Wear, 245(1-2), 2000, 
92–99. 
[12] Guijun Xian, Rolf Walter and Frank Haupert, Friction and wear of epoxy/TiO2 nano composites: Influence of 
additional short carbon fibers, Aramid and PTFE particles, Composites Science and Technology, 66, 2006, 
3199–3209. 
[13] D. Ray and R. Gnanamoorthy, Friction and wear behaviour of vinyl ester resin matrix composites filled with fly 
ash particles, Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 26(1), 2007, 5-13.

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Effect of short glass fiber and fillers on dry sliding wear behaviour of thermoplastic copolyester

  • 1. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India AND TECHNOLOGY (IJMET) ISSN 0976 – 6340 (Print) ISSN 0976 – 6359 (Online) Volume 5, Issue 9, September (2014), pp. 71-80 © IAEME: www.iaeme.com/IJMET.asp Journal Impact Factor (2014): 7.5377 (Calculated by GISI) www.jifactor.com 71 IJMET © I A E M E EFFECT OF SHORT GLASS FIBER AND FILLERS ON DRY SLIDING WEAR BEHAVIOUR OF THERMOPLASTIC COPOLYESTER ELASTOMER COMPOSITES R. Hemanth1, Prakash Sam Thomas2, B. Suresha3, M. Sekar4 1, 2, 4Karunya School of Mechanical Science, Karunya University, Coimbatore, India 3Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Engineering, Mysore, India ABSTRACT The dry sliding wear behaviour of thermoplastic copolyester elastomer (TCE) reinforced with fibers and fillers were slid against a steel counterface of a pin-on-disc tribometer. The filler and fiber reinforcements used are polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE), short glass fiber (SGF), short carbon fiber (SCF), silicon carbide (SiC), and alumina (Al2O3). The parameters like filler content, sliding velocity and sliding distance on the specific wear rate have been investaigated. In this study, a plan of experiments based on the techniques of Taguchi was performed to acquire data in a controlled way. An orthogonal array L27 (313) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were applied to study the influence of process parameters on the specific wear rate of TCE based composites. The experimental results reveal that the effect of filler content was the major parameter on specific wear rate, followed by the sliding distance. The sliding velocity, however, was found to have a neglecting effect. The worn surface topographies show asssorted features like tendency of the matrix to adhere towards the fiber, network of microcracks, less debris formation, agglomeration of debris and broken fibers on the sliding distance and velocity employed. Keywords: TCE Based Composites, Taguchi’s Design of Experiments, Specific Wear Rate, Worn Surface Morphology. 1. INTRODUCTION Polymers and their composites possess a unique combination of physical properties that are either unattainable or difficult to reproduce in metal and ceramic materials. Polymer composites occupy a considerable market share nowadays as one of the most common engineering materials. They provide a combination of various advantages, such as ease in manufacturing, cost effectiveness and excellent performance, which cannot be attained by metals, ceramics, or polymers alone [1]. In recent years, polymer composites have been extensively used to replace metallic materials in engineering applications involving friction and wear. The advantages of polymers such as self lubricity, light weight, corrosion resistant and ease of processing have allowed them to be the best choice [2]. Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE’s) concern large industrial and commercial fields, as well as academic and applied research. They are novel constructional polymers, which are physically cross-linked materials made up of a thermoplastic and an elastomer. Applications include flexible couplings, ski boots, gears, high pressure hose lines, outer coverings for wire and optical fiber cables, seals, etc. [3]. The choice of an appropriate matrix is of great importance in the design of wear resistant polymer composites. The concept of adding particles of micro or nanoscale into polymers is one of the most intriguing subjects in the recent decades. Fiber reinforcements like glass, carbon, and aramid fibers have frequently been applied in order to improve mechanical properties. Solid lubricants (polytetrafluroethylene and graphite) are proved to be very helpful in developing
  • 2. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India a transfer film between the two counterparts and could drastically reduce the frictional coefficient of the composites [4]. Polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) possesses low coefficient of friction, low stick–slip and high levels of anti-adhesive properties, which make it a potential candidate for adhesive wear process. Unfortunately, PTFE has the following drawbacks: low Young’s modulus, high visco-elasticity and poor wear resistance [5]. While, short fibre reinforcements, such as carbon, glass and aramid fibers, could effectively improve the wear resistance of polymer composites by undergoing most of the load during sliding processes. Short glass fiber (SGF) exhibited better adhesive wear performance in severe operating conditions (applied load, sliding velocity, and sliding distance) [6]. Short carbon fiber (SCF), is widely advocated as a decisive reinforcement component, show a remarkable capability to increase the wear resistance [7]. Silicon carbide (SiC) particles have shown an increased wear resistance in dry sliding (adhesive) wear of polymer composites [6]. The alumina (Al2O3) particles in polymer would strengthen the mechanical properties of polymer composites [8]. 72 The objective of this research work is to evaluate the influence of fibers and fillers on wear rate and influence of independent parameters such as sliding distance, filler content, and sliding velocity on wear performance of thermoplastic copolyester elastomers (TCE) reinforced composites using design of experiments (DOE). The fibers and fillers reinforcements used in TCE are SGF, SCF, PTFE, silicon carbide (SiC), and Al2O3. DOE was applied to study the various parameters affecting the specific wear rate. The information generally comprises the relationship between product and process parameters and the desired performance characteristic. In any process, the desired testing parameters were either determined based on experience or by use of a handbook. It, however, does not provide optimal testing parameters for a particular situation. Thus, numerous mathematical models based on statistical regression techniques have been constructed to select the proper cutting or testing conditions. The Taguchi’s design can further simplify by expending the application of the traditional experimental designs to the use of orthogonal array. This method is a simple, efficient and systematic approach to optimize designs for performance, quality and cost [9]. Majority of research studied detailed experimental work i.e., the effect of one factor by keeping all other factors fixed, this approach is not advisable because in an actual environment there will be combined effects of interacting factors influencing the abrasive wear. Hence in this investigation an attempt is being made to study the interacting effects of factors along with the main effect. In this paper, influence of filler content, sliding distance and sliding velocity on the specific wear rate of TCE based composites was explored using Taguchi’s design of experiments. Dry slidng wear tests were carried out on a pin-on-disc tribometer. Tribological tests were carried out at room temperature, adopting L27 ortogonal array. The experimental results were analyzed by using analysis of means and variance of the influence of factors. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Materials In the present research work, the materials used for making polymer composites are TCE as matrix material, SGF as fiber reinforcement, PTFE, SCF, SiC and Al2O3 as filler reinforcement. The sources of these materials are listed in Table 1. 2.2 Fabrication of composites The polymer granules, fibers and fillers were dried at 75º C for 10 h in an oven before compounding. Selected compositions were mixed and extruded in Barbender co-rotating twin-screw extruder (Make: CMEI, Model: 16CME, SPL, chamber size 70 cm3). The mixing speed of 100 rpm was maintained for all the compositions. The extrudates from the die were quenched in cold water and then pelletized. In the melt blending, the temperature profile of the extrusion were zone1 (200º C), zone 2 (210º C), zone 3 (220º C), zone 4 (240º C) and zone 5 (260º C) respectively. The extrudates of the compositions were pelletized using pelletizing machine. The details of the composites fabricated for present investigation are given in Table 2. The pellets of the extrudates were pre-dried at 100º C in vacuum oven for 24 h and injection moulded in a reciprocating screw injection moulding machine (Windsor, 50 T), to produce test specimens. The processing temperature at zone 1 (220º C) and zone 2 (250º C) were maintained respectively. The mould temperature was maintained at 35º C. Table 1: Supplier details of the materials procured Polymer/Filler Source and supplier TCE Gargi Enterprises, Bengaluru PTFE Du Pont Co. Ltd. SGF Fine organics, Mumbai SCF Fine organics, Mumbai SiC Carborundum India Ltd. Al2O3 Triveni groups
  • 3. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India Matrix material (wt %) Composition (wt %) TCE Particulate fillers 1 80 20 PTFE 2 68 12 PTFE + 20 SGF 3 60 10 PTFE + 17.5 SGF + 2.5 SCF + 5 SiC + 5 Al2O3 Parameters Units Tested values Sliding velocity m/s 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 Sliding distance m 2000, 4000 and 6000 Normal load N 40 constant 73 2.3 Wear testing The dry sliding wear tests were performed on a pin on disc tribometer (Magnum Engineers, Bengaluru) setup as per ASTM G 99-05 standard. The photograph of the test apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. Table 2: Constituents of TCE based composites Sl. No. Fig. 1: Photograph of the Pin on Disk apparatus showing 1) steel counterface, 2) sample holder and 3) load cell Wear test samples of size 6 mm × 6 mm × 2.5 mm are glued to steel pin of 6 mm diameter and 30 mm length and comes in contact with (EN31 grade, 62 HRC, 1.6 μ Ra) rotating disc. Prior to testing, the samples were polished against medium grade sand paper (600 grit size) to ensure proper contact with counter face. Test parameters are given below in Table 3. Normal load throughout the experiment is kept constant at 40 N; the pin along with the specimen was then weighted in an electronic balance (0.1mg accuracy). Before and after wear testing, samples were cleaned with the acetone to remove wear debris. Table 3: Test conditions for the present study Weight loss of the test samples gives the measure of sliding wear loss. Volume loss was calculated from measured weight loss using density data of the test specimen.
  • 4. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India The specific wear rate (Ws) was calculated using equation (1). = (1) I II III Units A : Filler content 15 32 40 % B : Sliding velocity 0.5 1 1.5 m/s C : Sliding distance 2000 4000 6000 m 74 V L D Ws × where, V the volume loss in mm3, L the load in Newton, D the sliding distance in m. 2.4. Experimental Design Design of experiments (DOE) is the powerful analysis tool for modelling and analyzing the influence of the control factors on the performance output. The most important stage in the design of experiment lies in the selection of the control factors [9]. Taguchi uses a special design of orthogonal arrays to study the entire process parameter space with only a small number of experiments [10]. The Taguchi design of experiment approach eliminates the need for repeated experiments and thus saves time, material and cost. The most important stage in the design of experiment lies in the selection of the control factors. The Taguchi approach to experimentation provides an orderly way to collect, analyze, and interpret data to satisfy the objectives of the study. In the design of experiments, one can obtain the maximum amount of information for the amount of experimentation. Taguchi parameter design can optimize the performance characteristics through the setting of design. Three parameters namely filler content (A), sliding velocity (B), and sliding distance (C). The Table 4 given below indicates the factors and level. The experiments were conducted as per the orthogonal array with level of parameters given in each array row. The experimental observations are transformed into signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. There are several S/N ratios available depending on the type of characteristic, which can be calculated as logarithmic transformation of the loss function. Table 4: Control factors and levels used in the experiment Control factors Level For lower is the better performance characteristic S/N ratio is calculated as per the given formula: - y n s n = − 2 10log (2) Where “n” is the number of observations and “y” is the observed data. “Smaller is the better” characteristic, with the above S/N ratio transformation, is suitable for minimization of wear rate. The sliding wear test results were subject to the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The purpose of ANOVA is to investigate parameters which significantly affect the performance characteristic. With DOE and ANOVA analysis; the optimal combination of wear parameters is predicted to acceptable level of accuracy. The optimal process parameters obtained from the parameter design [11]. The use of ANOVA is to analyze the influence of wear parameters like (A) filler content, (B) sliding velocity, and (c) sliding distance. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Analysis of control factor Analysis of the influence of each control factor (A, B, and C) on the specific wear rate was performed with a so-called S/N response table, using a Minitab 16 computer package. Table 5 shows the experimental plan and their results with calculated S/N ratios for the specific wear rate of TCE based composites. The right side of the table included the results of the specific wear rate and the calculated S/N ratio. Overall mean for S/N ratio was found to be 224.1818 dB. The response table of the specific wear rate is presented
  • 5. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India in Table 6. It indicates the S/N ratio at each level of control factor and how it was changed when settings of each control factor were changed from level 1 to level 2 and level 2 to level 3. The control factor with the strongest influence was determined by differences values. The higher the difference, the more influential was the control factor. It can be seen in Table 6 that the strongest influence was exerted by filler content (factor A), followed by sliding velocity (factor B) and sliding distance (factor C), respectively. 75 Table 5: Test conditions and output results using orthogonal array Sl. No. Filler content (wt. %) Sliding Velocity (m/s) Sliding distance (m) Specific wear rate x e-12 (mm3/Nm) S/N ratio (db) 1 15 0.5 2000 22.6250 212.98 2 15 0.5 4000 20.3625 213.82 3 15 0.5 6000 15.8375 216.00 4 15 1.0 2000 21.4930 213.35 5 15 1.0 4000 15.8375 216.00 6 15 1.0 6000 9.0500 220.86 7 15 1.5 2000 12.0660 218.36 8 15 1.5 4000 6.7875 223.36 9 15 1.5 6000 3.3937 229.38 10 32 0.5 2000 9.0000 220.91 11 32 0.5 4000 6.9000 223.22 12 32 0.5 6000 4.6000 226.74 13 32 1.0 2000 7.9850 221.95 14 32 1.0 4000 5.3300 225.46 15 32 1.0 6000 3.0160 230.41 16 32 1.5 2000 7.0000 223.09 17 32 1.5 4000 4.0000 227.95 18 32 1.5 6000 1.3300 237.52 19 40 0.5 2000 6.2100 224.14 20 40 0.5 4000 6.0370 224.38 21 40 0.5 6000 2.9000 230.75 22 40 1.0 2000 8.6250 221.28 23 40 1.0 4000 3.5800 228.92 24 40 1.0 6000 2.8750 230.82 25 40 1.5 2000 6.9000 223.22 26 40 1.5 4000 3.4500 229.24 27 40 1.5 6000 1.1500 238.78 Fig. 2 shows the main effect plots for S/N ratio. Highest S/N ratio will give the minimum specific wear rate. From the plots it is clear that factor combination of A3B3C3, gives minimum specific wear rate. Thus minimum specific wear rate is obtained when filler content, sliding velocity and sliding distance is at maximum level. It is evident that increasing the filler content of the matrix material the specific wear rate is decreasing. It is observed that increase in the level of both filler content and sliding distance causes specific wear rate to decrease with the effect of filler content dominating the effect of sliding distance on wear rate [11]. In the case of specimen TCE filled with SGF, SCF and ceramic fillers addition of ceramic materials i.e. SiC will help to detach the material from the specimen. The material detached from specimen forms wear debris. The ceramic material forms wear path on the disc. The debris engages between the specimen and the counter face helps to reduce the wear rate. It is understandable that increase in sliding
  • 6. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India distance causes the transfer film formation on the wear disc and this contributes to reduce the wear rate under longer duration of sliding. Addition of PTFE to the polymer will cause the film formation this will decrease the wear rate [12]. Main Effects Plot for SN ratios 76 15 32 40 230.0 227.5 225.0 222.5 220.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2000 4000 6000 230.0 227.5 225.0 222.5 220.0 filler content Mean of SN ratios sliding velocity sliding distance Data Means Signal-to-noise: Smaller is better Fig. 2: Main effect plot for S/N ratio Table 6: Response table for S/N ratio - smaller is better Level Filler content Sliding velocity Sliding distance 1 218.2 223 221.5 2 226.4 223.2 223.6 3 229.5 227.9 229.0 delta 11.3 4.9 7.5 rank 1 3 2 Fig. 3 illustrates the interaction effects of control parameters. It is well known that interactions do not occur when the lines on the interaction plots are parallel and strong interactions occur between parameters when the lines cross. In order to find out the correlation of the interaction factor and wear rate ANOVA analysis carried out. Fig 3: Interaction plot for S/N ratio
  • 7. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 77 3.2 ANOVA The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to investigate which design parameters significantly affect the quality characteristic. It was accomplished by separating the total variability of the S/N ratios, which is measured by sum of the squared deviations from the total mean S/N ratio, into contributions by each of the design parameters and the errors. The percentage contribution of each control factor is employed to measure the effect over Ws. Table 5 shows the results of the ANOVA with the specific wear rate. This analysis was undertaken for a level of significance of 5% that is, for level of confidence 95%. Examination of the calculated values of Fishers (F) for all control factors also showed a very high influence of factor A and low influence of factor B on specific wear rate of TCE based composites (Table 7). The interaction between A x B (7.50%) have got the significant influence, A x C and B x C have got least significance in dry sliding wear behaviour of TCE composites. The present analysis indicates that dry sliding wear test parameters and their interactions have both statistical and physical significance in TCE composites. 3.3 Worn surface morphology The worn surface morphology was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to study the effect of increase in filler content, sliding distance and sliding velocity. Table 7: ANOVA response table for Ws Source D S JS JM P% Filler content (A) 2 5.88801 5.88801 2.94400 55.10 Sliding velocity (B) 2 1.47654 1.47654 0.73827 13.80 Sliding distance (C) 2 2.01698 2.01698 1.00849 18.90 (A x B) 4 0.80196 0.80196 0.20049 7.50 (A x C) 4 0.32160 0.32160 0.08040 3.00 (B x C) 4 0.08519 0.08519 0.02130 0.80 Error 8 0.09630 0.09630 0.01204 0.90 Total 26 10.68658 100 S = 0.109715, R-Sq = 99.10% and R-Sq (adj) = 97.07%. D: DOF, degrees of freedom; S: Seq SS, sequential sum of squares; JS: Adj SS, adjusted sum of squares; JM: Adj MS, adjusted mean squares; P%: percentage of contribution. The SEM micrographs are shown in Fig. 4. The arrows show the direction of the adhesive wear. Fig. 4a and 4b shows the worn surface micrograph of TCE + PTFE filled composite, and Fig. 4c, 4d and 4e shows the worn surface micrograph of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers reinforced composite with different magnifications. The circles show the wear debris. P stands for debonding of PTFE particulate and SGF stands for short glass fiber. From the micrographic pictures we can infer that the detachment of the particles from the specimen cause wear debris. This wear debris entrapped between the specimen and the counter face. This will cause the reduction of the wear rate. Ray and Gnanamoorthy [13] explained three mechanisms namely (i) matrix material loss, (ii) filler wear, and (iii) debonding at the interface are operative in filled polymer composites and dominance of one factor over the other control the wear behaviour of composites. In the case of specimen with TCE and PTFE wear debris is more. In the case of specimen with TCE, PTFE and SGF i.e. short glass fiber is easily detached from the surface, since the glass fiber is harder than the steel material. It will cause wear to the disc. So wear rate decreases. In the case of specimen with TCE, PTFE, SGF, SCF, SiC, and Al2O3 ceramic material cause wear on the counter face. The wear debris trapped inside the wear path and cause decrease in the wear rate.
  • 8. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 78 Deep fragmentation Micro cracks P Severe damage Fig. 4a: SEM micrographs of TCE + PTFE composite slid at 6000 m, 0.5 m/s Cracks P Micro cracks Void Fragmentation Fig. 4b: SEM micrographs of TCE + PTFE composite slid at 6000 m, 1 m/s P Furrows and ridges Void Fig. 4c: SEM micrographs of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers filled composite slid at 6000 m, 0.5 m/s Micro crack
  • 9. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 79 Fig. 4d: SEM micrographs of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers filled composite slid at 6000 m, 1 m/s Fig. 4e: SEM micrographs of TCE + fibers + ceramic fillers filled composite slid at 6000 m, 1.5 m/s 4. CONCLUSIONS Experimental investigation carried out on TCE composites to study the effect of filler content, sliding distance and sliding velocity on specific wear rate. The following conclusions could be drawn from the results of the dry sliding wear behaviour of fiber and filler filled TCE composites. Specific wear rate is least in TCE composite reinforced with fiber and ceramic fillers, in comparison to that of TCE + PTFE and TCE + PTFE + SGF reinforced composites. A synergistic effect of the fibers and fillers on improving the wear resistance was reported. Specific wear rate decreases with increase in sliding distance. As the filler content of the specimen increases the specific wear rate also decreases. From Taguchi analysis it is concluded that control factors cause significant effect on specific wear rate and they are ranked as filler content sliding distance siding velocity. Ananlysis of variance provides the effect of interaction of control factors on specific wear rate. Filler content has more significant effect on the specific wear rate of TCE composites followed by sliding distance and sliding velocity. Interaction between sliding distance and sliding velocity possess more significant effect followed by filler content and sliding velocity on the specific wear rate of TCE composites. 5. REFERENCES [1] M. Palabiyik and S. Bahadur, Tribological studies of polyamide 6 and high-density polyethylene blends filled with PTFE and copper oxide and reinforced with short glass fibers, Wear, 253(3–4), 2002, 369–376. [2] H. L. Stein, Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), Engineered Materials Handbook 1999, 167–171. Furrows and ridges
  • 10. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Current Trends in Engineering and Management ICCTEM -2014 17 – 19, July 2014, Mysore, Karnataka, India 80 [3] S. Amin and M. Amin, Thermoplastic elastomeric (TPE) materials and their use in outdoor electrical insulation, Advances in Material Sciences, 29, 2011, 15–30. [4] L. Chang and Z. Zhang, Tribological properties of epoxy nano composites Part II. A combinative effect of short carbon fibre with nano-TiO2, Wear, 260, 2006, 869–878. [5] Guijun Xian and Zhong Zhang, Sliding wear of polyetherimide matrix composites I. Influence of short carbon fibre reinforcement, Wear, 258, 2005, 776–782. [6] B. Suresha, P. Chandramohan, P. R. Sadananda Rao, P. Sampathkumaran, S. Seetharamu and Vartha Venkateswarlu, Friction and slide wear characteristics of glass-epoxy and glass-epoxy filled with SiCp composites, Indian Journal of Engineering Materials and Science, 13, 2006, 535-541. [7] C. Lhymn and J. Bozolla, Friction and wear of fiber reinforced PPS composites, Advances in Polymer Technology, 7(4), 1987, 451–61. [8] Y. Wang, S. Lim, J. L. Lu and Z. H. Xu, Tribological and corrosion behaviour of Al2O3/polymer nanocomposite coatings, Wear, 206, 2006, 976-983. [9] M. Sudheer, Ravikantha Prabhu, K. Raju, and Thirumaleshwara Bhat, Optimization of Dry Sliding Wear Performance of Ceramic Whisker Filled Epoxy Composites Using Taguchi Approach, Advances in Tribology, 2012, 1-9 [10] K. M. Subbaya, B. Suresha, N. Rajendra and Y. S. Varadarajan, Grey-based Taguchi approach for wear assessment of SiC filled carbon–epoxy composites, Materials and Design, 41, 2012, 124–130. [11] S. Bahadur, The development of transfer layers and their role in polymer tribology, Wear, 245(1-2), 2000, 92–99. [12] Guijun Xian, Rolf Walter and Frank Haupert, Friction and wear of epoxy/TiO2 nano composites: Influence of additional short carbon fibers, Aramid and PTFE particles, Composites Science and Technology, 66, 2006, 3199–3209. [13] D. Ray and R. Gnanamoorthy, Friction and wear behaviour of vinyl ester resin matrix composites filled with fly ash particles, Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 26(1), 2007, 5-13.