2.
The critical reader must be able to
evaluate arguments.
When you evaluate an argument (a set of
claims), you determine its value or
persuasiveness.
To be able to do a good job evaluating
arguments, you need to know what an
argument is and how an argument is put
together.
3.
An argument is a claim that is supported
by reasons or evidence.
When an author tries to persuade the
reader that something is true or correct
by presenting supporting reasons or
evidence, an argument is being made.
This means that an argument is different
from a statement.
5. Parts of an Argument
ISSUE - problem or controversy about
which people disagree
CLAIM - the position on the issue
SUPPORT - reasons and evidence that
the claim is reasonable and should be
accepted
REFUTATION - opposing viewpoints
6. Persuasion
The author is trying to convince the reader
that a claim is true by giving supporting
reasons or evidence.
7. The Claim
The claim of an argument
is the point of the argument.
When an author makes an argument,
it’s the claim that the author is trying
to persuade the reader to accept as
true.
8. Types of Claims
CLAIM OF FACT - statement that can be
proven or verified by observation or
research
“Within ten years, destruction
of rain forests will cause
hundreds of plant and animal
species to become extinct.”
9. Types of Claims
CLAIM OF VALUE - states that one thing
or idea is better or more desirable than
another.
“Requiring community service
in high school will produce more
community-aware graduates.”
10. Types of Claims
CLAIM OF POLICY - suggests what
should or ought to be done to solve a
problem.
“To reduce school violence, more gun and
metal detectors should be installed in
public schools.”
11. Analysis
To evaluate an argument, you need
to analyze it.
When you analyze an argument, you
break it down into its parts and
examine them by themselves and in
relation to the other parts of the
argument.
12. Types of Support
REASON - a general statement that
supports a claim.
EVIDENCE - consists of facts, statistics,
experiences, comparisons, and examples
that show why the claim is valid.
EMOTIONAL APPEALS - ideas that are
targeted toward needs or values that
readers are likely to care about.
13. Inductive and Deductive Arguments
INDUCTIVE - reaches a general
conclusion from observed specifics.
“By observing the performance of a large
number of athletes, you could conclude
that athletes possess physical stamina.”
14. Inductive and Deductive Arguments
DEDUCTIVE - begins with a major
premise and moves toward a more
specific statement or minor premise.
“Athletes possess physical stamina.
Because Anthony is an athlete, he must
possess physical stamina.”
15. Strategies for Reading an Argument
What does the title suggest? Preview!
Who is the author, and what are his or her
qualifications?
What is the date of publication?
What do I already know about the issue?
16. Strategies for Reading an Argument
Read once for an initial impression.
Read the argument several more times.
Annotate as you read.
Highlight key terms.
Diagram or map to analyze structure.
17. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Evaluate Types of Evidence - Is it
sufficient to support the claim?
Personal Experience - may be biased, so
do not accept it
Examples - should not be used by
themselves
18. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Statistics - can be misused, manipulated
or misinterpreted.
Comparisons and Analogies - reliability
depends on how closely they correspond
to the situation.
Relevancy and Sufficiency of Evidence - is
there enough of the right kind to support
the claim?
19. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Definition of Terms - should be carefully
defined and used consistently
Cause-Effect Relationships - evidence that
the relationship exists should be present
Implied or Stated Value System - are they
consistent with your personal value
system?
20. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Recognizing and Refuting Opposing
Viewpoints
Question the accuracy, relevancy or
sufficiency of the opponent’s evidence.
Does the author address opposing viewpoints
clearly and fairly?
Does the author refute the opposing viewpoint
with logic and relevant evidence?
21. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Unfair Emotional Appeals
Emotionally Charged or Biased Language
False Authority
athletes endorsing underwear
movie stars selling shampoo
Association
a car being named a Cougar to remind you of a
sleek animal
a cigarette advertisement featuring a scenic
waterfall
22. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Unfair Emotional Appeals
Appeal to “Common Folk”
an ad showing a product being used in an average
household
a politician suggesting he is like everyone else
Ad Hominem - attack on the person rather
than his/her viewpoint
“Join the Crowd” Appeal or Bandwagon
23. What emotional appeal is being used?
Come early so you won’t have to stand in line –
because everyone knows you can make a deal
with Dave and save.
As a test pilot, Susan Gibbs knows performance.
“That’s why I drive a Mustang,” she says.
Olson’s pizzas are lower in fat and calories.
Other pizza makers don’t care about your health.
24. Emotional appeals continued…
“We can work magic with your children,” says
Eileen of Eileen’s Day Care. “Call upon us, and
your children will be happy you did.”
Liberty Bell Airlines flies anywhere in this great
land, from sea to shining sea.
As a young man, Candidate Alan Wilson learned
what it means to work hard by spending long
hours lifting boxes and sweeping floors working in
a department store.
25. Errors in Logical Reasoning
commonly called logical fallacies
invalidate the argument or render argument flawed
Circular Reasoning/Begging the Question
“Female police officers should not be sent to
crime scenes because apprehending
criminals is a man’s job.”
Hasty Generalization - conclusion derived
from insufficient evidence
“Because one apple is sour,
all of them in the bowl must
be sour.”
26. Errors in Logical Reasoning
Non Sequitur (“It Does Not Follow”)
False Cause
“Because my doctor is young, I’m
sure she’ll be a good doctor.”
“Because I opened the umbrella when I
tripped on the sidewalk, the umbrella must
have caused me to trip.”
Either-Or Fallacy
“Because of the violence, TV must be either
allowed or banned.”
27. For Each Argument:
Identify the claim.
Outline the reasons to support the claim.
What types of evidence are used?
Evaluate the adequacy and sufficiency of
the evidence.
What emotional appeals are used?
Does the author recognize or refute
counter arguments?
35. Analyzing an Argument
What issue is presented?
What is the author’s argument?
What are some author’s assumptions?
What type of support (facts, experts’ opinions, research,
observations, personal experiences, etc.) do the author/s
present?
How relevant (directly related to the issue) is the
support?
Is the argument objective and complete?
Is the argument valid(logical) and credible (believable)?
36. Comparing the Arguments:
Compare the types of evidence used.
Which argument did you find more
convincing? Why?
What further information would be useful
in assessing the issue?