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Cities Outlook 1901
Sheffield, c1900. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection.
Front cover photographs: Birmingham, 1890, Sunderland, 1900 & York, 1908. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection.
Cities Outlook 1901
by Naomi Clayton & Raj Mandair




00
Cities Outlook 1901: Summary                                                               4


01
Introduction: Lessons from history                                                         7


02
Cities Outlook 1901: Historic urban Britain                                                10


03
From 20th to 21st century: Urban growth and decline                                        36


04
Future cities: Lessons for policy                                                          51


Acknowledgements
The Centre for Cities would like to thank the Heritage Lottery Fund for their support of
Cities Outlook 1901. All views expressed are those of Centre for Cities.
Centre for Cities                                                                  Cities Outlook 1901




    Cities Outlook 1901: Summary
    A city’s economic past has a profound influence on its future. Current
    geographical differences across the UK can be traced back not just decades
    but a century or more.



    The majority of economic differences between                  The 20th century was marked by two major urban
    cities can be attributed to a complex range of                changes: the north to south shift and the coastal
    internal and external factors, rather than to policy          to inland shift. Cities in the Industrial North, which
    decisions. The implications of the shift away from            depended much more on manufacturing, experienced
    manufacturing towards services provides much of the           rising unemployment as their core industries restructured
    explanation for why cities such as Blackburn and Hull         and fewer jobs were required. Port cities saw their
4   experience continued economic decline while others such       competitive advantage decline as alternative modes of
    as London and Cambridge have seen rising prosperity.          transport were developed and manufacturing declined.
                                                                  In contrast, cities in the Greater South East, which had
    Some geographical differences are long-standing;              more diverse industrial bases and higher skills, saw
    even in 1901 there was a North-South divide.                  significant employment growth.
    Although the 19th century was marked by the rapid
    expansion of towns and cities in the North, employment        If the Government wishes to ‘rebalance the
    was often low wage and precarious, leading to a sharp         economy’ and support economic prosperity across
    contrast between the North and the South. Towns and           all cities, then understanding the impact of history
    cities in the South tended to be more affluent with higher    and the time that economic change can take is
    skills, higher wages and greater wealth.                      crucial. Where a city starts from in terms of its skills
                                                                  base, its infrastructure, the diversity of its industries, its
    Yet cities do not necessarily follow the same                 institutional networks and its links to other economies
    continual path. Cities evolve and adapt to changing           can give it a headstart in a rapidly changing economy.
    economic circumstances. For some cities, such as
    Burnley, the negative impacts of global economic change       Policy can have an important role to play in altering
    were being felt well before 1901. For other cities, such as   a city’s economic path – although change can take
    Birmingham, the adverse impacts of wider economic             decades.
    change have been felt more recently.
Centre for Cities                                                                  www.centreforcities.org




Cities Outlook 1901 shows that skills are the most            1. Short-term cuts in expenditure on the key
important factor determining long-run urban                   drivers of urban success are likely to result in a big
success, and therefore are a key area for policy              bill in the medium to longer-term. Government needs
intervention. Seven out of eight of the best performing       to sustain its investment in the areas that are most
cities today had above average skills levels in 1901, while   responsive to policy intervention, particularly skills,
80 percent of cities with vulnerable economies in 2012 fall   targeted infrastructure investment and support for
into the bottom 20 cities for skills levels in 1901.          enterprise.

Targeted investment in infrastructure has also had            2. Skills are the biggest determinant of success for
a significant impact upon city performance. Cities            cities, and are critical to the life chances of
like Warrington, Preston and Swindon improved their           individuals. Government should ensure its skills
economic performance partly as a result of government         investment, ranging from early years to workplace skills,
investment in infrastructure. Preston, for example,           continues to adapt to the needs of a rapidly changing
benefited from a new network of roads from the                economy. Cities should work with local providers to
abandoned 1970s Central Lancashire New Town project,          ensure that education and training are responsive to the
and is now performing better than might have been             needs of individuals and businesses.
expected based on its 1901 performance.                                                                                   5
                                                              3. Targeting investment in infrastructure can have
Cities Outlook 1901 illustrates the way that lack of          a significant impact upon the economic prospects
investment is compounded over time. Failure to                of a place. Government should work with local
invest in skills or infrastructure in 1901 had knock-on       authorities to identify where investment in transport is
long-term impacts on a place and its people over decades,     most likely to release economic potential. Often this may
while targeted investment in infrastructure and ongoing       be through linking less successful cities to those with
investment in skills succeeded in helping some places and     greater economic potential, for example working on
people improve performance.                                   transport schemes that link cities across Greater
                                                              Manchester to capitalise on Manchester’s success.
For policymakers seeking to learn lessons from the past       Government should also continue to seek opportunities to
when confronting today’s economic challenges, three           devolve major transport scheme funding to functional
themes stand out:                                             economic areas.
Nottingham, 1890. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection
Centre for Cities                                                                                                    www.centreforcities.org




01 / Lessons from history
History matters. A city’s economic past has a profound influence on its
future. Yet cities do not necessarily follow on the same development path.
Cities have evolved and adapted to changing economic circumstances
over decades.


A city’s economic past has a                              This report                                                century prior to 1901, ‘The Victorian
profound influence on its future.                                                                                    Boom’ saw processes of
Cambridge’s highly knowledge-                             Cities Outlook 1901 uses data from                         industrialisation and imperialism
intensive economy can be traced                           the 1901 Census and other                                  significantly transform the UK
back to its 13th century university;                      contemporary sources to build a                            economy. Just over a decade after
Sheffield’s specialisation in medical                     picture of city economies at the turn                      1901 came World War One. Then
instruments to the 14th century                           of the 20th century to understand                          came the inter-war periods, which         7
edge-tool and cutlery industries; and                     what the 21st century is likely to hold                    were characterised by economic and
Preston’s cluster of aerospace firms                      for cities.                                                political readjustment, and high
to the First World War.                                                                                              unemployment.
                                                          Section two maps the economic
History matters. Yet cities do not                        performance of cities across a range                       Over the 19th century a south to
necessarily follow on the same                            of indicators in 1901. The third                           north shift took place alongside
continual path.1 Long-run growth                          section examines changes in city                           a rural to urban shift. In 1801, a
trajectories of city economies are the                    economies from 1901 to 2011 and the                        quarter of the population lived in the
“complex outcomes of a range of                           factors influencing these changes.                         South East and East of England and
structural and systemic, and external                     Section four considers the                                 just 18 percent in the industrialised
and internal, factors, processes and                      implications of the research for                           North and Midlands. By 1861, this
arrangements”2 - and history has a                        current and future policy.                                 pattern had reversed (Figure 1).
significant bearing on all of these.
                                                          What was the UK like in                                    The industrialised North and Midlands’
Any attempt to ‘rebalance the                             1901?                                                      share of the population continued to
economy’ and support economic                                                                                        increase throughout the 19th century
prosperity in UK cities needs to                          In 1901 the UK was experiencing                            and by the start of the 20th century
understand the crucial influence                          a period of relative economic                              equalled nearly 35 percent of the total
that history exerts.                                      stability. Over the course of the                          national population.


1. Martin R (2010) ‘Roepke Lecture in Economic Geography—Rethinking Regional Path Dependence: Beyond Lock-in to Evolution’ Economic Geography, 86: 1–27
2. Martin R (2012) ‘Regional economic resilience, hysteresis and recessionary shocks’, Journal of Economic Geography, 12: 1-32
Centre for Cities                                                                                                                                                         Cities Outlook 1901




    Figure 1:
    Change in population share across England, 1801 to 2010
                                         35%




                                         30%
     Share of total England population




                                         25%
                                                                                                                                                                                                         Industrial North & Midlands
                                                                                                                                                                                                         South East & East
                                                                                                                                                                                                         London Primary Urban Area
                                         20%




                                         15%

8

                                         10%
                                               1801

                                                      1811

                                                             1821

                                                                    1831

                                                                           1841

                                                                                  1851

                                                                                         1861

                                                                                                1871

                                                                                                       1881

                                                                                                              1891

                                                                                                                     1901

                                                                                                                            1911

                                                                                                                                   1921

                                                                                                                                          1931

                                                                                                                                                 1941

                                                                                                                                                        1951

                                                                                                                                                               1961

                                                                                                                                                                      1971

                                                                                                                                                                             1981

                                                                                                                                                                                    1991

                                                                                                                                                                                           2001

                                                                                                                                                                                                  2010
    Source: Southall H/ University of Portsmouth, 2010. NOMIS, Mid-Year Population Estimates, 2010.



    Manufacturing was the dominant                                                                     although manufacturing still                                            markets and suppliers. Cities offered
    industry in 1901. The late 19th                                                                    dominated (Figure 2).                                                   reduced costs of production,
    century saw the continued growth of                                                                                                                                        supportive networks of institutional
    industries associated with the                                                                     By 1901, 77 percent of the                                              structures and “externalities which
    Industrial Revolution, including                                                                   population lived in towns and                                           helped minimise transaction costs”.4
    textiles, metals and mining, as well as                                                            cities.3 As the UK became more
    the emergence of new industries,                                                                   industrialised in the years leading up                                  Towns and cities grew rapidly
    such as pharmaceuticals,                                                                           to 1901, it became more urbanised.                                      during the 19th century, with
    automotives, and electrical                                                                                                                                                some towns established to serve
    equipment. The expansion of                                                                        Cities were becoming                                                    particular industries.
    commercial and service-orientated                                                                  “information super-highways”,                                           Middlesbrough grew rapidly and
    activities had already begun by 1901,                                                              providing proximity to workers,                                         became an iron and steel-producing



    3. University of Glasgow http://chcc.arts.gla.ac.uk/urbanisation/section01/index.php
    4. Reeder D & Rodger R (2000) ‘Industrialisation and the city economy 1840–1950’ in Daunton M (ed) (2000) The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Centre for Cities                                                                                                                   www.centreforcities.org




centre, for example. Birkenhead’s expansion was fuelled by                                                   By 1901 local government was moving towards the
shipbuilding activity.                                                                                       model we have today, with the rising significance of
                                                                                                             cities and towns reflected in changes to local
Yet employment in many of the large                                                                          government roles and boundaries. The 1888 Local
manufacturing towns and cities was low paid and                                                              Government Act resulted in the significant reorganisation
precarious. Employers often responded to changes in                                                          of local government structures and the creation of ‘county
the market by taking on, but also laying off, employees.                                                     boroughs’ that were better aligned to urban geographies.
Rising competition from international economies during                                                       Although the role of local authorities was highly uneven,
the 19th century led to high unemployment and a decline                                                      local government facilitated urban expansion and
in standards of living in many of the large manufacturing                                                    economic growth through the management of urban
centres in the North.5                                                                                       infrastructure, education, public safety and amenities.6

Figure 2:
Change in industrial structure in England and Wales, 1841 to 1931

                                                           6,000

                                                                                                                                                                               9
 Number of males employed by broad industry group (000s)




                                                           5,000




                                                           4,000

                                                                                                                                                           Agriculture
                                                                                                                                                           Mining
                                                           3,000
                                                                                                                                                           Manufacturing
                                                                                                                                                           Construction
                                                                                                                                                           Services
                                                           2,000




                                                           1,000




                                                              0
                                                                   1841




                                                                          1851




                                                                                 1861




                                                                                        1871




                                                                                               1881




                                                                                                      1891




                                                                                                                    1901




                                                                                                                             1911




                                                                                                                                        1921




                                                                                                                                                 1931




Source: Lee CH (1979) British Regional Employment Statistics 1841-1971, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, via www.visionofbritain.org.uk



5. See Rodgers HB (1962) ‘The changing geography of the Lancashire cotton industry’, Economic Geography, 38 (4): 299-314 for example.
6. Doyle BM (2000) ‘The changing functions of urban government: councillors, officials and pressure groups’ in Daunton M (ed) (2000) The Cambridge Urban History of Britain,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Centre for Cities                                                                                                 Cities Outlook 1901




     02 / Cities Outlook 1901
     Drawing on data from the 1901 Census and other contemporary sources, this
     section examines the nature and performance of urban economies in 1901.

     Population

     Population share is taken as an indication of the economic
     scale of different cities, while population change in the
                                                                                                     Box 1:
     decade prior to 1901 provides an indication of economic
                                                                                                     Primary Urban Areas in 1901
     change.                                                                                         The analysis in this report uses data for Primary
                                                                                                     Urban Areas (PUA). The boundaries for the 1901
     In 1901, the 57 largest urban areas in England and                                              Primary Urban Areas (PUAs) are defined in a similar
     Wales covered 12 percent of landmass and were                                                   way to current PUA boundaries, using population
10   home to over 44 percent of the population and                                                   size and density, and are designed to take account
     more than 50 percent of total employment. Cities                                                of the contiguous built-up area.
     and towns varied substantially in size though, ranging from
     a population of just over 21,000 in Mansfield to nearly one                                     For example, Gateshead is included in the Newcastle
     million in Manchester and over 5.5 million in London.                                           PUA (as it is in the current definition) because the
                                                                                                     local authority formed part of the contiguous
     •	 London had long been an economic powerhouse.                                                 built-up area with Newcastle-upon-Tyne and, whilst
        The capital’s population steadily increased over the 19th                                    smaller, had a relatively high population density. St.
        century. In the ten years from the 1891 Census its                                           Helens, on the other hand, is excluded from the
        population expanded by 20 percent (939,000). By 1901,                                        1901 definition of the Liverpool PUA as it does not
        17 percent of the national population lived in the capital.                                  yet form part of the same contiguous built-up area.

     •	 Almost all of the Core Cities7, with the exception                                           Of the current PUAs across England and Wales, 57 of
        of Nottingham, were already the largest cities                                               the 59 existed as towns or cities and are included in
        outside London in 1901. They also experienced                                                the analysis. Telford and Milton Keynes were built as
        the largest growth in absolute terms between                                                 New Towns in the 1960s and are not included.
        1891 and 1901 (Figure 4). Manchester was the second
        largest city in England and Wales in 1901, having grown                                      A full list of PUA definitions for 1901 and 2011 is
        by over 22 percent over the previous decade to a                                             available at www.centreforcities.org/outlook1901
        population of nearly one million.


     7. The Core Cities are Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Nottingham and Sheffield.
Figure 3:
Population, 1901
                                                                                                                                                                  Population, 1901

                                                                                                                                                                           1,177,301 - 5,319, 600
City                  Population      City                   Population

London                  5,570,870     Middlesbrough                91,300                                                                                                  764, 401 - 1,177,300
                                                                                                                                   Newcastle
Manchester                958,660     Northampton                  87,020
                                                                                                                                       Sunderland                          339,001 - 764, 400
Liverpool                 764,370     Rochdale                     83,110
                                                                                                                                                                           168, 200 - 339,000
Birmingham                654,030     Wigan                       82,430
                                                                                                                                          Middlesbrough                    77,901 - 168, 200
Leeds                     428,950     York                         77,910
                                                                                                                                                                           21,400 -77,900
Sheffield                 409,070     Reading                      72,220

Newcastle                 356,910     Coventry                     69,980
                                                                                                                                   Bradford
Bristol                   339,040     Newport                      67,290                            Blackburn Rochdale
                                                                                               Preston                                     York
Bradford                   279,770    Ipswich                     66,630                                    Burnley
                                                                                           Blackpool                               Leeds                  Hull
Hull                      240,260     Hastings                    65,530                                                           Wakefield
                                                                                                      Bolton
Nottingham                239,750     Warrington                   64,240                                                Huddersfield                            Grimsby
                                                                                                    Wigan                                Doncaster
                                                                                                                          Barnsley
                                                                                        Liverpool
Leicester                  211,580    Grimsby                      63,140                                                               Sheffield
                                                                                      Birkenhead
                                                                                                                   Manchester
Stoke                     208,610     Oxford                       49,340                           Warrington
                                                                                                                                         Mansfield
Plymouth                  192,290     Gloucester                   47,960
                                                                                                           Stoke
Portsmouth                188,930     Blackpool                    47,350                                                                  Nottingham
                                                                                                                           Derby
Bolton                    168,220     Bournemouth                  47,000
                                                                                                                                             Leicester                                            Norwich
Cardiff                   164,420     Swindon                      45,010                                                                                   Peterborough
Brighton                   160,010    Wakefield                    41,540                                 Birmingham
                                                                                                                            Coventry     Northampton
Sunderland                146,080     Barnsley                     41,080
                                                                                                                                                                       Cambridge
Blackburn                  129,220    Cambridge                   38,380
                                                                                                                                                                                                Ipswich
Southampton                118,010    Luton                       36,400
                                                                                                                                                         Luton
Derby                      114,850    Aldershot                    30,970                                            Gloucester
                                                                            Swansea                                                      Oxford
Preston                    112,990    Peterborough                 30,870                       Newport                  Swindon
                                                                                                                                                                                    Southend
Norwich                    111,730    Doncaster                    28,930                                                                                          London
                                                                                      Cardiff                  Bristol             Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                  Chatham
Birkenhead                 110,920    Southend                    28,860
                                                                                                                                                    Aldershot
Chatham                   110,390     Crawley                      25,990
                                                                                                                                                                 Crawley
Burnley                     97,040    Worthing                     22,570                                                Southampton
Huddersfield                95,050    Mansfield                    21,450                                                                           Worthing                     Hastings
Swansea                     94,540                                                                        Bournemouth               Portsmouth                  Brighton



                                                                              Plymouth




Source: Census 1901.
Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
Figure 4:
Population change, 1891 to 1901

Absolute change                                                                                                              London            Absolute population change
                                                                                                                                                  176,280 - 938,600

                                                                                                                                                    61,450 - 176,280

                                                                                                                                                    29,650 - 61,450

                                                                                                                                                    0 - 29,650




                                                      Manchester
       Newcastle                     Liverpool             Sheffield
                                   Leeds                                                 Birmingham                          Bristol
                                                                                                                                                                 Plymouth




Relative change                                                                                                                                Annual growth rate (%)
                                                                                                                                                  4.7 - 9.0

                                                                                                                                                    2.7 - 4.6

                                                                                                                                                    1.7 - 2.6

                                                                                                                                                    0 - 1.6

                              Blackpool                                                                                       Southend


Newcastle                                     Wigan                                                          Swindon
                                                                     Mansfield                                                           Worthing
                                                                                                                                                          Plymouth




Source: Census 1901.
Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
Note: Huddersfield is not displayed on the map as it was the only PUA to see a fall in population over the period (0.39%).
Centre for Cities                                                                                                            www.centreforcities.org




•	 Bradford and Hull were included in the 10 largest                                         •	 Birmingham, Manchester, Bristol and Liverpool
   cities in England and Wales. Nearly 280,000 people                                           were the other top destinations for migrants.
   lived in Bradford - making the city larger than                                           	 The size of these urban economies meant that huge
   Nottingham at the time - and over 240,000 people lived                                       swathes of people migrated to them in search of
   in Hull. However, population growth rates in both cities                                     employment and business opportunities. Over 400,000
   had started to slow from the peak rates of the 1860s                                         relocated to either Manchester or Liverpool. Liverpool
   and 1870s.8                                                                                  was particularly popular with Irish migrants who arrived
                                                                                                in England through its port in the 19th century. Relative
•	 Coastal towns also expanded rapidly as they                                                  levels of in-migration were highest in Bristol where over
   became popular as places to live and visit (Figure                                           44 percent of the population (146,000) came from
   4). Between 1891 and 1901, Southend and Blackpool                                            outside the city.
   grew by more than 90 percent.
                                                                                             •	 The rapid growth of smaller towns in the 19th
Migration                                                                                       century was also driven by high levels of
                                                                                                migration from elsewhere in the country.
Domestic migration has historically been driven by                                              Bournemouth’s population, for example, grew by 273
economic incentives, as people respond to job                                                   percent from just 3,330 in 1861 to 47,000 in 1901                                  13
opportunities and the prospect of earning higher wages.9                                        following the construction of the railway and its rising
Patterns of migration are affected by a range of additional                                     popularity as a tourist destination. Less than a third of
factors, including information and distance, but                                                Bournemouth’s residents in 1901 (29 percent) were
nevertheless provide a useful indication of how economic                                        born in the city or surrounding county.
performance varied across cities in 1901.10
                                                                                             	 The growth of other towns, such as Hastings, Cardiff
•	 London was a huge magnet for migrants,                                                      and Birkenhead, was also driven primarily by in-
   reflecting the economic significance of the                                                 migration from areas outside their immediate counties.12
   capital. A quarter of London’s population (1.3 million)
   in 1901 had migrated from elsewhere in the country.11
   Large flows of migrants relocated from the counties
   surrounding London but substantial numbers also
   migrated from areas as far away as the North East.
   London was also home to by far the largest number of
   international migrants, accounting for seven percent of
   the city’s population in 1901. Overall, nearly 1.7 million
   of London’s resident population in 1901 had migrated
   from elsewhere.



8. Waller PJ (1983) Town, City and Nation: England 1850-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press
9. Boyer GR (1997) ‘Labour migration in southern and eastern England’, European Review of Economic History, 1: 191-215
10. Note the data presented here differs from current measures of internal migration (the NHS Central Register for example) as it may reflect moves made 30 or 40 years prior to
1901 rather than moves made within the last year. The principle source of information on patterns of migration in 1901 is the birthplace data recorded in the 1901 Census.
11. The number of domestic migrants to London is likely to be underestimated as Essex and Middlesex are categorised as ‘home’ counties.
12. Origin data is only available at county level. Data may therefore underestimate levels of in-migration as it excludes relocations from a city’s immediate county.
Figure 5:
Largest migration flows across England, 1901
                                                                                                                Newcastle




                                                                                                                      Middlesbrough
     Migration flows >7,000
                 Birkenhead
                 Birmingham
                 Brighton
                 Bristol                                                                  Burnley        Leeds                    Hull
                 Burnley
                 Hastings
                 Hull                                                      Liverpool                              Sheffield
                                                                                                   Manchester
                 Leeds                                                     Birkenhead
                 Leicester
                 Liverpool
                                                                                                      Nottingham
                 London
                 Manchester                                                                               Leicester
                 Middlesbrough                                                          Birmingham
                 Newcastle
                 Nottingham
                 Plymouth
                 Portsmouth
                 Sheffield

                                                                                         Bristol                                          London




                                                                                                         Portsmouth                                Hastings
                                                                                                                                      Brighton



                                                               Plymouth




Source: Census 1901.
Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
Centre for Cities                                                                                                            www.centreforcities.org




Economic distress

The term ‘economic distress’ is used as opposed to                                           •	 Cities and towns with low levels of economic
‘unemployment’ as the data we use here only captures                                            distress tended to be located in the South and
unemployment among a select group of occupations.                                               East of England. Swindon - which had the largest
The organisation of employment for many workers was so                                          number of engineers - appears to have been
informal in 1901 that applying current definitions of                                           characterised by relatively low levels of economic
unemployment would have little meaning.                                                         distress in 1901. Stoke also had a relatively low number
                                                                                                of claimants as the ceramics industry was still a major
‘Economic distress’ is measured using data from trade                                           employer in 1901, accounting for almost a third of all
unions on the proportion of their members claiming                                              employment in the city.14 The number of claimants in
donation benefits due to unemployment (Figure 6). Data                                          Stoke, Peterborough, Norwich and Doncaster was also
from the Amalgamated Society of Engineers and the                                               low.
Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners provide
good samples as two of the largest unions in the country
in 1901. Both trades were also inherently urban. The
data is likely to be an accurate measure of the numbers                                                                                                                          15
of engineers and carpenters unemployed as the mutual
basis of union insurance schemes meant that there was
less stigma in making a claim.

•	 High levels of economic distress were an
   established feature of the industrial heartlands
   in 1901. This reflected the propensity of firms to
   respond to volatilities in the market by reducing pay or
   laying off workers.13 Economic distress was most
   pronounced in Burnley and Hull where nearly 13
   percent and eight percent of members were claiming
   benefits respectively. There was also a clear divide
   across the Pennines, with higher levels of economic
   distress in the Lancashire mill towns where cotton
   manufacturers were beginning to suffer from
   competitive pressures.




13. Southall HR (1988) ‘The Origins of the Depressed Areas: Unemployment, Growth, and Regional Economic Structure in Britain before 1914’, The Economic History Review, 41 (2)
14. Source: Lee CH (1979) British regional employment statistics 1841-1971, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Figure 6:
Economic distress, 1901                                                                                                                                                    Members claiming
                                                                                                                                                                           donation benefits,
                                                                                                                                                                           1901 (%)
                     Members                                Members                                                                                                            0.0 - 0.9
                      claiming                               claiming
City                benefit (%)       City                 benefit (%)                                                                                                         1.0 - 2.2
                                                                                                                                             Newcastle
                                                                                                                                                                               2.3 - 3.7
Burnley                       12.7    Reading                        1.4                                                                         Sunderland
                                                                                                                                                                               3.8 - 7.5
Hull                           7.5    Wakefield                      1.4
                                                                                                                                                                               7.6 - 12.7
Blackburn                      6.6    Grimsby                        1.3                                                                           Middlesbrough

Cardiff                        5.2    Bradford                       1.2

Swansea                        4.6    York                           1.1

Gloucester                     4.4    Newcastle                      1.1                                                            Bradford
                                                                                                          Blackburn Rochdale
Bolton                         4.2    Sheffield                      0.9                            Preston                               York
                                                                                                                  Burnley
Newport                        3.7    Barnsley                       0.8                        Blackpool                         Leeds                            Hull
                                                                                                                                   Wakefield
Sunderland                     3.5    Coventry                       0.8                                   Bolton       Huddersfield                                      Grimsby
                                                                                                       Wigan                              Doncaster
Liverpool                      3.4    Portsmouth                     0.7                     Liverpool                     Barnsley
                                                                                                                   Manchester        Sheffield
Manchester                     3.2    Ipswich                        0.6                   Birkenhead

Preston                        3.0    Brighton                       0.5
                                                                                                           Warrington

Bristol                        3.0    Stoke                          0.3                                            Stoke
                                                                                                                                                   Nottingham
                                                                                                                                     Derby
Southampton                    2.8    Derby                          0.2

Nottingham                     2.5    Chatham                        0.1                                                                                                                          Norwich
                                                                                                                                                     Leicester
                                                                                                                                                                     Peterborough
Rochdale                       2.4    Swindon                        0.0
                                                                                                                   Birmingham
Luton                          2.4    Mansfield                      0.0
                                                                                                                                      Coventry
Leeds                          2.3    Doncaster                      0.0

Huddersfield                   2.2    Peterborough                   0.0                                                                                                                         Ipswich

Norwich                        2.1    Southend                       0.0
                                                                                                                              Gloucester
London                         1.9    Northampton                    0.0
                                                                              Swansea
                                                                                                      Newport                      Swindon
Birkenhead                     1.9    Hastings                       0.0
                                                                                           Cardiff                                                                        London
Plymouth                       1.8    Worthing                       0.0                                              Bristol
                                                                                                                                                                                      Chatham
Middlesbrough                  1.7    Bournemouth                    0.0

Warrington                     1.7    Oxford                         0.0

Wigan                          1.7    Crawley                       n/a                                                            Southampton
                                                                                                                                                                                      Hastings
Birmingham                     1.6    Aldershot                     n/a
                                                                                                                                              Portsmouth              Brighton
Blackpool                      1.5    Cambridge                     n/a

Leicester                      1.5
                                                                                  Plymouth




Source: Amalgamated Society of Engineers (ASE) and Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners (ASCJ), branch level statistics
NB: Map excludes cities with fewer than 100 members
Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
Centre for Cities                                                                                                            www.centreforcities.org




Earnings

While the average earnings within occupations would                                          •	 Workers living in London and Oxford were also
have varied to a degree across different cities, it is                                          more likely to be employed in higher paid
possible to examine the proportion of workers in higher                                         professions. Nearly 25 percent were employed in
wage occupations to broadly assess how wages might                                              managerial or professional occupations. Manchester
have differed across cities (Figure 7).                                                         also stands out with nearly a fifth of workers employed
                                                                                                in these occupations.
Solicitors and barristers were by far the highest
paid across the occupational groups in 1901.15 The                                           •	 At the other end of the spectrum, just 10 percent
average solicitor would have earned 22 times more than                                          of workers living in Coventry, Warrington and
the average labourer. Skilled engineers and surveyors,                                          Chatham were employed in higher wage
business clerks and doctors were also amongst the                                               occupations. In Chatham, just one percent of workers
highest paid occupations. Labourers, miners and police                                          living in the Medway towns were employed in higher
were amongst the lowest paid.                                                                   professional occupations.

Low wages were an important cause of poverty                                                                                                                                           17
and skills were a strong determinant of wages. An
estimated 40 percent of households headed by an
unskilled worker were below the poverty line in 1901.16

•	 Victorian coastal towns were attractive
   residential locations for high wage managers and
   professionals. More than a third of those living in
   Southend and Blackpool – towns that expanded rapidly
   between 1891 and 1901 – worked in higher wage
   occupations. Over 10 percent of workers living in
   Southend were employed as higher professionals; by far
   the highest paid occupational group. The proportion of
   managers and professionals living in other coastal
   towns including Bournemouth, Hastings and Brighton
   was also high.




15. Williamson JG (1982) ‘The Structure of Pay in Britain, 1710-1911’, Research in Economic History, 7 (1982): 1-54
16. Household budget data, Labour Department of the Board of Trade from Gazeley I & Newell A (2007) ‘Poverty in Britain in 1904: An Early Social Survey Rediscovered’, University of
Sussex, PRUS Working Paper no. 38
Figure 7:
Employment in higher wage occupations, 1911
                                                                                                                                                              Proportion of male workforce
                                                                                                                                                              employed in high wage
                   % employed                           % employed                                                                                            occupations, 1911 (%)
                  in high wage                         in high wage
City               occupations      City                occupations                                                                                              19.7 - 34.3
                                                                                                                                Newcastle                        16.6 - 19.6
Southend                    34.3    Preston                       14.5
                                                                                                                                    Sunderland                   13.6 - 16.5
Blackpool                   33.3    Portsmouth                    14.5
                                                                                                                                                                 11.1 - 13.5
Bournemouth                 29.0    Northampton                   14.4
                                                                                                                                      Middlesbrough              9.6 - 11.0
Hastings                     27.7   Derby                         13.5

Brighton                    26.7    Barnsley                      13.4

Oxford                      24.3    Rochdale                      12.9                                                        Bradford
London                      23.9    Sunderland                    12.8                              Blackburn Rochdale
                                                                                              Preston                               York
                                                                                                            Burnley
Manchester                  19.6    Sheffield                     12.2
                                                                                          Blackpool                         Leeds                     Hull
Southampton                  19.4   Burnley                        12.1                                                      Wakefield
                                                                                                     Bolton       Huddersfield
Bristol                     19.0    Bolton                         12.1                          Wigan
                                                                                       Liverpool                     Barnsley
Cardiff                     18.8    Wigan                          11.7                                      Manchester        Sheffield
                                                                                     Birkenhead
Bradford                    18.7    Middlesbrough                 11.0                            Warrington
Norwich                     18.5    Swindon                       10.5
                                                                                                          Stoke
                                                                                                                                      Nottingham
Reading                      17.9   Stoke                         10.4                                                  Derby
Ipswich                      17.8   Coventry                      10.1
                                                                                                                                                                                     Norwich
Liverpool                   16.9    Chatham                       10.0
                                                                                                          Birmingham
Leeds                       16.5    Warrington                      9.6
                                                                                                                         Coventry
York                        16.3    Mansfield                      n/a
                                                                                                                                               Northampton
Nottingham                  16.3    Doncaster                      n/a
                                                                                                                                                                                   Ipswich
Birkenhead                  16.2    Peterborough                   n/a

Wakefield                   15.6    Gloucester                     n/a
                                                                           Swansea                                                    Oxford
Newport                     15.3    Grimsby                        n/a                         Newport                Swindon
                                                                                                                                                                          Southend
Swansea                     15.0    Cambridge                      n/a               Cardiff                                                                 London
                                                                                                            Bristol             Reading                                 Chatham
Blackburn                   14.7    Leicester                      n/a

Hull                        14.7    Worthing                       n/a

Huddersfield                14.6    Crawley                        n/a                                                Southampton
Plymouth                    14.6    Luton                          n/a                                                                                                  Hastings

Newcastle                   14.5    Aldershot                      n/a                                   Bournemouth              Portsmouth             Brighton

Birmingham                  14.5
                                                                             Plymouth




Source: Census, 1911; Routh, 1980
NB: Data only available for county boroughs
Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
Centre for Cities                                                                                        www.centreforcities.org




Property values

Property values provide an indication of the variation in
levels of affluence and economic performance across
cities in 1901. Local taxation returns are used to
estimate rental values per capita across cities in 1901
(Figure 8).

•	 Cities with the highest property values tended to
   be clustered around London and the South East.
   The variation in property values follows a similar spatial
   pattern to the proportion of higher wage occupations.
   Average property values were highest in towns such as
   Bournemouth, Hastings, London and Oxford. Rental
   values per capita in Bournemouth were three times
   higher than in parts of the West Midlands.
                                                                                                                                   19
•	 Property values were also relatively high in parts
   of the North, including Blackpool and
   Manchester, and in South Wales. The influx of
   wealthy businessmen to Blackpool is likely to have
   pushed house prices up; Blackpool had the third
   highest property values just behind Bournemouth and
   London.17 There were also large variations within
   regions: property values in Manchester were more than
   double values in neighbouring Warrington.




                                                                        Bristol, 1901. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection

17. Walton JK (1998) Blackpool, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
Figure 8:
Property values, 1901
                                                                                                                                                            Gross estimated
                                                                                                                                                            property value
                      Estimated                              Estimated
                                                                                                                                                            per capita, 1901
                       property                               property
                       value per                              value per                                                                                        9.2 - 10.6
 City                     capita      City                       capita                                                                                        7.0 - 9.1
                                                                                                                            Newcastle
 Bournemouth                  10.6    Plymouth                       5.4                                                                                       5.5 - 6.9
                                                                                                                              Sunderland
 London                       10.6    Derby                          5.4                                                                                       4.3 - 5.4
 Blackpool                      9.1   Leicester                      5.3                                                                                       3.3 - 4.2
                                                                                                                                   Middlesbrough
 Hastings                      8.8    Nottingham                     5.2

 Oxford                        8.6    Rochdale                       5.2

 Brighton                      8.5    Gloucester                      5.1
                                                                                                                            Bradford
 Crawley                       8.3    Sheffield                       5.1                                     Rochdale
                                                                                        Blackburn                                      York
 Cambridge                     8.3    Sunderland                     5.0                                Burnley
                                                                                   Blackpool                                 Leeds                  Hull
 Cardiff                        8.1   Northampton                    5.0
                                                                                               Preston                   Wakefield
 Peterborough                  7.8    Bolton                         5.0                                Bolton           Barnsley                          Grimsby
                                                                                             Wigan
 Doncaster                     7.5    Aldershot                      5.0              Liverpool              Huddersfield    Doncaster
                                                                                                       Manchester
                                                                                 Birkenhead Warrington                    Sheffield
 Worthing                      7.5    Leeds                          4.9

 Manchester                     7.4   Ipswich                        4.9                                                            Mansfield
 Newport                        7.2   Grimsby                        4.9                                                              Nottingham
                                                                                                           Stoke
 Liverpool                     6.9    Middlesbrough                  4.8                                                 Derby
 Southend                      6.5    Swansea                        4.7                                                                                     Peterborough
                                                                                                                                      Leicester                                       Norwich
 Reading                       6.2    Blackburn                      4.7
                                                                                                    Birmingham
 Bradford                      6.2    Stoke                          4.7                                                         Northampton
                                                                                                                   Coventry
 Huddersfield                   6.1   Burnley                        4.6                                                                                        Cambridge             Ipswich
 Southampton                   6.0    Coventry                       4.6

 Wakefield                     6.0    Barnsley                       4.6
                                                                                                               Gloucester                           Luton
 York                          6.0    Mansfield                      4.6                                                           Oxford
                                                                                              Newport          Swindon                                                     Southend
 Birmingham                    5.9    Portsmouth                     4.5        Swansea
                                                                                                                                                           London          Chatham
 Luton                         5.8    Preston                        4.2            Cardiff                                 Reading
                                                                                                     Bristol
 Newcastle                     5.8    Wigan                           4.1
                                                                                                                                              Aldershot
 Birkenhead                    5.7    Norwich                        3.9                                                                                   Crawley
                                                                                                                          Southampton
 Bristol                       5.7    Chatham                        3.8                                                                      Worthing                 Hastings
 Swindon                       5.6    Warrington                     3.3                                                                                  Brighton
                                                                                                                                 Portsmouth
 Hull                          5.4                                                                  Bournemouth


                                                                            Plymouth



Source: Local Taxation Returns, 1901
Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
Centre for Cities                                                                                    www.centreforcities.org




Industrial profile

In 1901, over 84 percent of the male                           •	 ‘Industrial cities’, with more      Southern exceptions included
workforce were ‘engaged in                                        than a third of employment          Swindon where over 45 percent of
occupations’; the remaining 16                                    concentrated in the                 employment was concentrated in
percent were either ‘retired’ or                                  manufacturing industries,           manufacturing and London where
‘unoccupied’.                                                     were almost exclusively found       the figure was nearly a third.
                                                                  in the North and Midlands.
In times of economic instability, with                            Manufacturing dominated the jobs   •	 The economic significance of
limited protection for the                                        market in the Lancashire towns        the service industries varied
unemployed, large numbers would                                   surrounding Manchester and in         hugely across cities in 1901.
move between occupations rather                                   Coventry, Northampton,                The highest levels of employment
than accept unemployment. This                                    Birmingham and Huddersfield           in commercial, professional and
suggests occupational statistics                                  (Figure 9).                           public services were found in
provide a reliable measure of the size                                                                  Bournemouth (19 percent) and
of sectors within different cities, and                        •	 By contrast, manufacturing made       London (18 percent). In contrast,
as a result their industrial profiles.                            up just 10 percent of employment      Swindon and Doncaster had very      21
                                                                  in cities in the South, such as       small service sectors (less than
                                                                  Worthing, Southend and Crawley.       four percent).18




Preston, 1903. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection

18. Transport is not included in the definition of services.
Figure 9:
Ratio of manufacturing to services employment, 1901
                                                                                                                                                                 Ratio of
                                                                                                                                                                 manufacturing
                           Ratio of                              Ratio of                                                                                        to services
                     manufacturing                         manufacturing                                                                                         employment, 1901
 City                  to services       City                to services                                                                                            0.8 - 1.7
 Swindon                         14.4    Norwich                           3.1                                                   Newcastle                          1.8 - 2.6
 Burnley                          8.4    Ipswich                           2.9                                                     Sunderland                       2.7 - 3.5
 Wakefield                         7.4   Hull                              2.8                                                                                      3.6 - 6.5
                                                                                                                                        Middlesbrough               6.6 - 14.4
 Doncaster                         7.2   Portsmouth                        2.6

 Rochdale                          7.2   Gloucester                        2.6

 Coventry                          7.2   Swansea                           2.6

 Blackburn                         7.1   York                              2.6                                                   Bradford
                                                                                                                   Rochdale
 Bolton                            7.1   Blackpool                         2.5               Blackburn                                      York
                                                                                                             Burnley
 Warrington                       6.7    Cambridge                         2.5          Blackpool                                 Leeds                  Hull
                                                                                                    Preston                   Wakefield
 Mansfield                        6.7    Grimsby                           2.4
                                                                                                  Wigan      Bolton           Barnsley                          Grimsby
 Stoke                            6.7    Bristol                           2.1
                                                                                           Liverpool              Huddersfield    Doncaster
                                                                                                            Manchester
 Barnsley                         6.5    Peterborough                      2.1        Birkenhead Warrington                    Sheffield

 Middlesbrough                    6.3    Plymouth                          2.0                                                           Mansfield
 Northampton                       6.1   Worthing                          1.9
                                                                                                                                           Nottingham
                                                                                                                Stoke
 Sheffield                        6.0    Newport                           1.7                                                Derby
 Birmingham                       5.9    Birkenhead                        1.7
                                                                                                                                           Leicester              Peterborough             Norwich
 Preston                          5.7    Liverpool                         1.6
                                                                                                         Birmingham
 Huddersfield                     5.3    Cardiff                           1.5
                                                                                                                                      Northampton
 Sunderland                       5.3    London                            1.5                                          Coventry
                                                                                                                                                                     Cambridge             Ipswich
 Leicester                        5.3    Reading                           1.5

 Bradford                          5.1   Crawley                           1.4
                                                                                                                    Gloucester                           Luton
 Nottingham                       4.9    Brighton                          1.3                                                          Oxford
 Leeds                            4.7    Aldershot                         1.3                     Newport          Swindon                                                     Southend
                                                                                     Swansea
 Derby                            4.6    Southampton                       1.3                                                                                  London          Chatham
                                                                                         Cardiff                                 Reading
                                                                                                          Bristol
 Chatham                          4.5    Oxford                            1.2
                                                                                                                                                   Aldershot
 Manchester                       3.5    Southend                          1.2                                                                                  Crawley
 Luton                            3.3    Hastings                          0.8                                                 Southampton
                                                                                                                                                   Worthing                 Hastings
 Newcastle                        3.2    Bournemouth                       0.8                                                                                 Brighton
                                                                                                                                      Portsmouth
 Wigan                            3.2                                                                    Bournemouth


                                                                                 Plymouth



Source: Census 1901
Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
Centre for Cities                                                                                                www.centreforcities.org




Industrial diversity and specialisation

The proportion of employment concentrated in the largest                                   •	 Stoke was the only city to specialise in ceramics.
occupational group provides an estimate of the degree of                                      Widely known as ‘the Potteries’, over 30 percent of the
specialisation in urban economies.                                                            workforce were employed in the industry in 1901, more
                                                                                              than 25 times the national average.
The most specialised cities included Northampton,
Sheffield, Middlesbrough, Swindon and Burnley.                                             •	 Specialisation in some cities was reinforced by
                                                                                              the dominance of a few large firms.
•	 Northampton was one of the most specialised                                                Middlesbrough’s steel industry was dominated by two
   cities in 1901. Just under 45 percent of the workforce                                     large firms. Dorman Long (4,300 employees) and
   – over 11,000 – were employed in shoe and boot                                             Bolckow Vaughan (5,500 employees) accounted for the
   manufacture. Leicester was also a major centre for                                         majority of employment in the steel industry in the city.19
   shoe and boot manufacture with over 17,000 employed
   in the industry. Yet Leicester was a larger, more diverse                               •	 Cities and towns in the South East were more
   economy where transport and construction were also                                         diversified. No individual sector accounted for more
   important industries and, as a result, the shoe and boot                                   than a fifth of total employment. Construction was the        23
   industry accounted for less than a third of total                                          dominant sector in growing towns in the South, including
   employment.                                                                                Aldershot, Luton and Crawley. Yet it accounted for less
                                                                                              than 20 percent of employment in Crawley and just five
•	 Metal and machinery manufacture accounted for                                              percent in Aldershot. Transport was also a significant
   more than a third of employment in several cities                                          employer in cities such as Brighton and Cambridge.
   in the North and Midlands. By 1901 Sheffield’s steel
   factories and related industries employed over 50,000
   workers (41 percent of the workforce) as firms
   capitalised on the city’s reputation for quality. In
   Sunderland 20 percent of employment was
   concentrated in shipbuilding alone.

•	 Blackburn and Burnley were the most highly
   specialised economies of Lancashire’s mill towns.
   Over a third of the workforce in Blackburn and Burnley
   were employed in the textiles industry. Employment in
   textiles was five times more concentrated in these cities
   than the national average.



19. Shaw C (2006) ‘The Large Manufacturing Employers of 1907’, Business History, 25:1, 42-60
Figure 10:                                                                                                                          Newcastle
Industrial concentration, 1901
                                                                                                                                      Sunderland


                                                                                                                                            Middlesbrough

Major occupation
   Mining
   Transport                                                                                                                        Bradford
                                                                                                  Blackburn Rochdale
   Metals & machinery                                                                       Preston      Burnley                              York
   Construction                                                                                                                      Leeds
                                                                                      Blackpool                                                                Hull
   Brick, cement, pottery & glass                                                                                                   Wakefield
                                                                                                    Bolton
                                                                                                                     Huddersfield                                      Grimsby
   Textiles                                                                                Wigan                Barnsley                      Doncaster
   Food, tobacco, drinks & lodgings                                                 Liverpool
                                                                                                              Manchester                 Sheffield
                                                                                Birkenhead
   Dress
                                                                                                 Warrington
                                                                                                                                            Mansfield
Proportion of male
                                                                                                        Stoke
workforce employed                                                                                                                         Nottingham
                                                                                                                          Derby
in single largest
occupational
group, 1901 (%)                                                                                                                                                                                      Norwich
                                                                                                                                               Leicester
                                                                                                                                                                   Peterborough
                                                                                                       Birmingham
     35 - 44
                                                                                                                                         Northampton
                                                                                                                           Coventry
                                                                                                                                                                          Cambridge
     27 - 34
                                                                                                                                                                                                   Ipswich
     23 - 26
                                                                                                                                                             Luton
     19 -22
                                                                                                                       Gloucester
                                                                  Swansea                                                                  Oxford
     14 - 18                                                                                Newport                     Swindon
                                                                                                                                                                                         Southend
     5 - 13                                                                     Cardiff                                                                             London
                                                                                                             Bristol                Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                    Chatham
                                                                                                                                                      Aldershot
                                                                                                                                                                      Crawley
                                                                                                                        Southampton
                                                                                                                                                     Worthing                       Hastings

                                                                                                       Bournemouth                                               Brighton
                                                                                                                                     Portsmouth


                                                                       Plymouth




      Source: Census 1901
      Note: Levels of specialisation may be underestimated in some cities due to the exclusion of female workers. Women were predominantly employed in domestic service, textiles and clothing. The inclusion of
      female workers is likely to increase the manufacturing bias in the textile towns where a high proportion of women and children were employed.
      Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
Centre for Cities                                                                                                          www.centreforcities.org




City Relationships case study:
Lancashire Mill Towns
The Cotton Mills were at the heart of the Industrial                                       interdependent economies with Manchester and its Royal
Revolution. Lancashire accounted for 75.8 percent of                                       Exchange at the top of the hierarchy. Businesses located
cotton workers employed in the UK in 1901.20 The bulk of                                   in Manchester carried out commercial and distributive
the industry was concentrated within an area that                                          functions to support the trade. Liverpool also formed part
measured 30 miles east to west and 20 miles north to                                       of this network, providing access to the raw cotton
south, incorporating the seven Lancashire towns and                                        markets.21
cities of: Manchester, Bolton, Burnley, Blackburn, Oldham,
Preston and Stockport.                                                                     The specialisation of each city grew out of and built upon
                                                                                           its existing economic strengths: the shipping communities
The urban areas of Lancashire housed a large number of                                     in Liverpool, the merchant community in Manchester and
small, vertically specialised firms that were highly                                       the engineering industry in towns such as Preston.                    25
localised. As a result, each town specialised in different                                 Interdependencies between the urban areas and their
stages of textile production – Oldham in spinning and                                      place in the economic hierarchy are still characteristic of
Preston in weaving, for example – forming a network of                                     Greater Manchester’s economy today.22




Manchester Ship Canal, 1894. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection


20. Rodgers HB (1962) ‘The changing geography of the Lancashire cotton industry’, Economic Geography, 38 (4): 299-314
21. http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/overview/
22. Centre for Cities, The Work Foundation & SURF (2009) City Relationships: Economic linkages in Northern city regions, Newcastle-upon-Tyne: The Northern Way
Cities outlook 1901
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Cities outlook 1901
Cities outlook 1901
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Cities outlook 1901

  • 2. Sheffield, c1900. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection. Front cover photographs: Birmingham, 1890, Sunderland, 1900 & York, 1908. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection.
  • 3. Cities Outlook 1901 by Naomi Clayton & Raj Mandair 00 Cities Outlook 1901: Summary 4 01 Introduction: Lessons from history 7 02 Cities Outlook 1901: Historic urban Britain 10 03 From 20th to 21st century: Urban growth and decline 36 04 Future cities: Lessons for policy 51 Acknowledgements The Centre for Cities would like to thank the Heritage Lottery Fund for their support of Cities Outlook 1901. All views expressed are those of Centre for Cities.
  • 4. Centre for Cities Cities Outlook 1901 Cities Outlook 1901: Summary A city’s economic past has a profound influence on its future. Current geographical differences across the UK can be traced back not just decades but a century or more. The majority of economic differences between The 20th century was marked by two major urban cities can be attributed to a complex range of changes: the north to south shift and the coastal internal and external factors, rather than to policy to inland shift. Cities in the Industrial North, which decisions. The implications of the shift away from depended much more on manufacturing, experienced manufacturing towards services provides much of the rising unemployment as their core industries restructured explanation for why cities such as Blackburn and Hull and fewer jobs were required. Port cities saw their 4 experience continued economic decline while others such competitive advantage decline as alternative modes of as London and Cambridge have seen rising prosperity. transport were developed and manufacturing declined. In contrast, cities in the Greater South East, which had Some geographical differences are long-standing; more diverse industrial bases and higher skills, saw even in 1901 there was a North-South divide. significant employment growth. Although the 19th century was marked by the rapid expansion of towns and cities in the North, employment If the Government wishes to ‘rebalance the was often low wage and precarious, leading to a sharp economy’ and support economic prosperity across contrast between the North and the South. Towns and all cities, then understanding the impact of history cities in the South tended to be more affluent with higher and the time that economic change can take is skills, higher wages and greater wealth. crucial. Where a city starts from in terms of its skills base, its infrastructure, the diversity of its industries, its Yet cities do not necessarily follow the same institutional networks and its links to other economies continual path. Cities evolve and adapt to changing can give it a headstart in a rapidly changing economy. economic circumstances. For some cities, such as Burnley, the negative impacts of global economic change Policy can have an important role to play in altering were being felt well before 1901. For other cities, such as a city’s economic path – although change can take Birmingham, the adverse impacts of wider economic decades. change have been felt more recently.
  • 5. Centre for Cities www.centreforcities.org Cities Outlook 1901 shows that skills are the most 1. Short-term cuts in expenditure on the key important factor determining long-run urban drivers of urban success are likely to result in a big success, and therefore are a key area for policy bill in the medium to longer-term. Government needs intervention. Seven out of eight of the best performing to sustain its investment in the areas that are most cities today had above average skills levels in 1901, while responsive to policy intervention, particularly skills, 80 percent of cities with vulnerable economies in 2012 fall targeted infrastructure investment and support for into the bottom 20 cities for skills levels in 1901. enterprise. Targeted investment in infrastructure has also had 2. Skills are the biggest determinant of success for a significant impact upon city performance. Cities cities, and are critical to the life chances of like Warrington, Preston and Swindon improved their individuals. Government should ensure its skills economic performance partly as a result of government investment, ranging from early years to workplace skills, investment in infrastructure. Preston, for example, continues to adapt to the needs of a rapidly changing benefited from a new network of roads from the economy. Cities should work with local providers to abandoned 1970s Central Lancashire New Town project, ensure that education and training are responsive to the and is now performing better than might have been needs of individuals and businesses. expected based on its 1901 performance. 5 3. Targeting investment in infrastructure can have Cities Outlook 1901 illustrates the way that lack of a significant impact upon the economic prospects investment is compounded over time. Failure to of a place. Government should work with local invest in skills or infrastructure in 1901 had knock-on authorities to identify where investment in transport is long-term impacts on a place and its people over decades, most likely to release economic potential. Often this may while targeted investment in infrastructure and ongoing be through linking less successful cities to those with investment in skills succeeded in helping some places and greater economic potential, for example working on people improve performance. transport schemes that link cities across Greater Manchester to capitalise on Manchester’s success. For policymakers seeking to learn lessons from the past Government should also continue to seek opportunities to when confronting today’s economic challenges, three devolve major transport scheme funding to functional themes stand out: economic areas.
  • 6. Nottingham, 1890. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection
  • 7. Centre for Cities www.centreforcities.org 01 / Lessons from history History matters. A city’s economic past has a profound influence on its future. Yet cities do not necessarily follow on the same development path. Cities have evolved and adapted to changing economic circumstances over decades. A city’s economic past has a This report century prior to 1901, ‘The Victorian profound influence on its future. Boom’ saw processes of Cambridge’s highly knowledge- Cities Outlook 1901 uses data from industrialisation and imperialism intensive economy can be traced the 1901 Census and other significantly transform the UK back to its 13th century university; contemporary sources to build a economy. Just over a decade after Sheffield’s specialisation in medical picture of city economies at the turn 1901 came World War One. Then instruments to the 14th century of the 20th century to understand came the inter-war periods, which 7 edge-tool and cutlery industries; and what the 21st century is likely to hold were characterised by economic and Preston’s cluster of aerospace firms for cities. political readjustment, and high to the First World War. unemployment. Section two maps the economic History matters. Yet cities do not performance of cities across a range Over the 19th century a south to necessarily follow on the same of indicators in 1901. The third north shift took place alongside continual path.1 Long-run growth section examines changes in city a rural to urban shift. In 1801, a trajectories of city economies are the economies from 1901 to 2011 and the quarter of the population lived in the “complex outcomes of a range of factors influencing these changes. South East and East of England and structural and systemic, and external Section four considers the just 18 percent in the industrialised and internal, factors, processes and implications of the research for North and Midlands. By 1861, this arrangements”2 - and history has a current and future policy. pattern had reversed (Figure 1). significant bearing on all of these. What was the UK like in The industrialised North and Midlands’ Any attempt to ‘rebalance the 1901? share of the population continued to economy’ and support economic increase throughout the 19th century prosperity in UK cities needs to In 1901 the UK was experiencing and by the start of the 20th century understand the crucial influence a period of relative economic equalled nearly 35 percent of the total that history exerts. stability. Over the course of the national population. 1. Martin R (2010) ‘Roepke Lecture in Economic Geography—Rethinking Regional Path Dependence: Beyond Lock-in to Evolution’ Economic Geography, 86: 1–27 2. Martin R (2012) ‘Regional economic resilience, hysteresis and recessionary shocks’, Journal of Economic Geography, 12: 1-32
  • 8. Centre for Cities Cities Outlook 1901 Figure 1: Change in population share across England, 1801 to 2010 35% 30% Share of total England population 25% Industrial North & Midlands South East & East London Primary Urban Area 20% 15% 8 10% 1801 1811 1821 1831 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2010 Source: Southall H/ University of Portsmouth, 2010. NOMIS, Mid-Year Population Estimates, 2010. Manufacturing was the dominant although manufacturing still markets and suppliers. Cities offered industry in 1901. The late 19th dominated (Figure 2). reduced costs of production, century saw the continued growth of supportive networks of institutional industries associated with the By 1901, 77 percent of the structures and “externalities which Industrial Revolution, including population lived in towns and helped minimise transaction costs”.4 textiles, metals and mining, as well as cities.3 As the UK became more the emergence of new industries, industrialised in the years leading up Towns and cities grew rapidly such as pharmaceuticals, to 1901, it became more urbanised. during the 19th century, with automotives, and electrical some towns established to serve equipment. The expansion of Cities were becoming particular industries. commercial and service-orientated “information super-highways”, Middlesbrough grew rapidly and activities had already begun by 1901, providing proximity to workers, became an iron and steel-producing 3. University of Glasgow http://chcc.arts.gla.ac.uk/urbanisation/section01/index.php 4. Reeder D & Rodger R (2000) ‘Industrialisation and the city economy 1840–1950’ in Daunton M (ed) (2000) The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  • 9. Centre for Cities www.centreforcities.org centre, for example. Birkenhead’s expansion was fuelled by By 1901 local government was moving towards the shipbuilding activity. model we have today, with the rising significance of cities and towns reflected in changes to local Yet employment in many of the large government roles and boundaries. The 1888 Local manufacturing towns and cities was low paid and Government Act resulted in the significant reorganisation precarious. Employers often responded to changes in of local government structures and the creation of ‘county the market by taking on, but also laying off, employees. boroughs’ that were better aligned to urban geographies. Rising competition from international economies during Although the role of local authorities was highly uneven, the 19th century led to high unemployment and a decline local government facilitated urban expansion and in standards of living in many of the large manufacturing economic growth through the management of urban centres in the North.5 infrastructure, education, public safety and amenities.6 Figure 2: Change in industrial structure in England and Wales, 1841 to 1931 6,000 9 Number of males employed by broad industry group (000s) 5,000 4,000 Agriculture Mining 3,000 Manufacturing Construction Services 2,000 1,000 0 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 Source: Lee CH (1979) British Regional Employment Statistics 1841-1971, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, via www.visionofbritain.org.uk 5. See Rodgers HB (1962) ‘The changing geography of the Lancashire cotton industry’, Economic Geography, 38 (4): 299-314 for example. 6. Doyle BM (2000) ‘The changing functions of urban government: councillors, officials and pressure groups’ in Daunton M (ed) (2000) The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  • 10. Centre for Cities Cities Outlook 1901 02 / Cities Outlook 1901 Drawing on data from the 1901 Census and other contemporary sources, this section examines the nature and performance of urban economies in 1901. Population Population share is taken as an indication of the economic scale of different cities, while population change in the Box 1: decade prior to 1901 provides an indication of economic Primary Urban Areas in 1901 change. The analysis in this report uses data for Primary Urban Areas (PUA). The boundaries for the 1901 In 1901, the 57 largest urban areas in England and Primary Urban Areas (PUAs) are defined in a similar Wales covered 12 percent of landmass and were way to current PUA boundaries, using population 10 home to over 44 percent of the population and size and density, and are designed to take account more than 50 percent of total employment. Cities of the contiguous built-up area. and towns varied substantially in size though, ranging from a population of just over 21,000 in Mansfield to nearly one For example, Gateshead is included in the Newcastle million in Manchester and over 5.5 million in London. PUA (as it is in the current definition) because the local authority formed part of the contiguous • London had long been an economic powerhouse. built-up area with Newcastle-upon-Tyne and, whilst The capital’s population steadily increased over the 19th smaller, had a relatively high population density. St. century. In the ten years from the 1891 Census its Helens, on the other hand, is excluded from the population expanded by 20 percent (939,000). By 1901, 1901 definition of the Liverpool PUA as it does not 17 percent of the national population lived in the capital. yet form part of the same contiguous built-up area. • Almost all of the Core Cities7, with the exception Of the current PUAs across England and Wales, 57 of of Nottingham, were already the largest cities the 59 existed as towns or cities and are included in outside London in 1901. They also experienced the analysis. Telford and Milton Keynes were built as the largest growth in absolute terms between New Towns in the 1960s and are not included. 1891 and 1901 (Figure 4). Manchester was the second largest city in England and Wales in 1901, having grown A full list of PUA definitions for 1901 and 2011 is by over 22 percent over the previous decade to a available at www.centreforcities.org/outlook1901 population of nearly one million. 7. The Core Cities are Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Nottingham and Sheffield.
  • 11. Figure 3: Population, 1901 Population, 1901 1,177,301 - 5,319, 600 City Population City Population London 5,570,870 Middlesbrough 91,300 764, 401 - 1,177,300 Newcastle Manchester 958,660 Northampton 87,020 Sunderland 339,001 - 764, 400 Liverpool 764,370 Rochdale 83,110 168, 200 - 339,000 Birmingham 654,030 Wigan 82,430 Middlesbrough 77,901 - 168, 200 Leeds 428,950 York 77,910 21,400 -77,900 Sheffield 409,070 Reading 72,220 Newcastle 356,910 Coventry 69,980 Bradford Bristol 339,040 Newport 67,290 Blackburn Rochdale Preston York Bradford 279,770 Ipswich 66,630 Burnley Blackpool Leeds Hull Hull 240,260 Hastings 65,530 Wakefield Bolton Nottingham 239,750 Warrington 64,240 Huddersfield Grimsby Wigan Doncaster Barnsley Liverpool Leicester 211,580 Grimsby 63,140 Sheffield Birkenhead Manchester Stoke 208,610 Oxford 49,340 Warrington Mansfield Plymouth 192,290 Gloucester 47,960 Stoke Portsmouth 188,930 Blackpool 47,350 Nottingham Derby Bolton 168,220 Bournemouth 47,000 Leicester Norwich Cardiff 164,420 Swindon 45,010 Peterborough Brighton 160,010 Wakefield 41,540 Birmingham Coventry Northampton Sunderland 146,080 Barnsley 41,080 Cambridge Blackburn 129,220 Cambridge 38,380 Ipswich Southampton 118,010 Luton 36,400 Luton Derby 114,850 Aldershot 30,970 Gloucester Swansea Oxford Preston 112,990 Peterborough 30,870 Newport Swindon Southend Norwich 111,730 Doncaster 28,930 London Cardiff Bristol Reading Chatham Birkenhead 110,920 Southend 28,860 Aldershot Chatham 110,390 Crawley 25,990 Crawley Burnley 97,040 Worthing 22,570 Southampton Huddersfield 95,050 Mansfield 21,450 Worthing Hastings Swansea 94,540 Bournemouth Portsmouth Brighton Plymouth Source: Census 1901. Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
  • 12. Figure 4: Population change, 1891 to 1901 Absolute change London Absolute population change 176,280 - 938,600 61,450 - 176,280 29,650 - 61,450 0 - 29,650 Manchester Newcastle Liverpool Sheffield Leeds Birmingham Bristol Plymouth Relative change Annual growth rate (%) 4.7 - 9.0 2.7 - 4.6 1.7 - 2.6 0 - 1.6 Blackpool Southend Newcastle Wigan Swindon Mansfield Worthing Plymouth Source: Census 1901. Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012. Note: Huddersfield is not displayed on the map as it was the only PUA to see a fall in population over the period (0.39%).
  • 13. Centre for Cities www.centreforcities.org • Bradford and Hull were included in the 10 largest • Birmingham, Manchester, Bristol and Liverpool cities in England and Wales. Nearly 280,000 people were the other top destinations for migrants. lived in Bradford - making the city larger than The size of these urban economies meant that huge Nottingham at the time - and over 240,000 people lived swathes of people migrated to them in search of in Hull. However, population growth rates in both cities employment and business opportunities. Over 400,000 had started to slow from the peak rates of the 1860s relocated to either Manchester or Liverpool. Liverpool and 1870s.8 was particularly popular with Irish migrants who arrived in England through its port in the 19th century. Relative • Coastal towns also expanded rapidly as they levels of in-migration were highest in Bristol where over became popular as places to live and visit (Figure 44 percent of the population (146,000) came from 4). Between 1891 and 1901, Southend and Blackpool outside the city. grew by more than 90 percent. • The rapid growth of smaller towns in the 19th Migration century was also driven by high levels of migration from elsewhere in the country. Domestic migration has historically been driven by Bournemouth’s population, for example, grew by 273 economic incentives, as people respond to job percent from just 3,330 in 1861 to 47,000 in 1901 13 opportunities and the prospect of earning higher wages.9 following the construction of the railway and its rising Patterns of migration are affected by a range of additional popularity as a tourist destination. Less than a third of factors, including information and distance, but Bournemouth’s residents in 1901 (29 percent) were nevertheless provide a useful indication of how economic born in the city or surrounding county. performance varied across cities in 1901.10 The growth of other towns, such as Hastings, Cardiff • London was a huge magnet for migrants, and Birkenhead, was also driven primarily by in- reflecting the economic significance of the migration from areas outside their immediate counties.12 capital. A quarter of London’s population (1.3 million) in 1901 had migrated from elsewhere in the country.11 Large flows of migrants relocated from the counties surrounding London but substantial numbers also migrated from areas as far away as the North East. London was also home to by far the largest number of international migrants, accounting for seven percent of the city’s population in 1901. Overall, nearly 1.7 million of London’s resident population in 1901 had migrated from elsewhere. 8. Waller PJ (1983) Town, City and Nation: England 1850-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press 9. Boyer GR (1997) ‘Labour migration in southern and eastern England’, European Review of Economic History, 1: 191-215 10. Note the data presented here differs from current measures of internal migration (the NHS Central Register for example) as it may reflect moves made 30 or 40 years prior to 1901 rather than moves made within the last year. The principle source of information on patterns of migration in 1901 is the birthplace data recorded in the 1901 Census. 11. The number of domestic migrants to London is likely to be underestimated as Essex and Middlesex are categorised as ‘home’ counties. 12. Origin data is only available at county level. Data may therefore underestimate levels of in-migration as it excludes relocations from a city’s immediate county.
  • 14. Figure 5: Largest migration flows across England, 1901 Newcastle Middlesbrough Migration flows >7,000 Birkenhead Birmingham Brighton Bristol Burnley Leeds Hull Burnley Hastings Hull Liverpool Sheffield Manchester Leeds Birkenhead Leicester Liverpool Nottingham London Manchester Leicester Middlesbrough Birmingham Newcastle Nottingham Plymouth Portsmouth Sheffield Bristol London Portsmouth Hastings Brighton Plymouth Source: Census 1901. Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
  • 15. Centre for Cities www.centreforcities.org Economic distress The term ‘economic distress’ is used as opposed to • Cities and towns with low levels of economic ‘unemployment’ as the data we use here only captures distress tended to be located in the South and unemployment among a select group of occupations. East of England. Swindon - which had the largest The organisation of employment for many workers was so number of engineers - appears to have been informal in 1901 that applying current definitions of characterised by relatively low levels of economic unemployment would have little meaning. distress in 1901. Stoke also had a relatively low number of claimants as the ceramics industry was still a major ‘Economic distress’ is measured using data from trade employer in 1901, accounting for almost a third of all unions on the proportion of their members claiming employment in the city.14 The number of claimants in donation benefits due to unemployment (Figure 6). Data Stoke, Peterborough, Norwich and Doncaster was also from the Amalgamated Society of Engineers and the low. Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners provide good samples as two of the largest unions in the country in 1901. Both trades were also inherently urban. The data is likely to be an accurate measure of the numbers 15 of engineers and carpenters unemployed as the mutual basis of union insurance schemes meant that there was less stigma in making a claim. • High levels of economic distress were an established feature of the industrial heartlands in 1901. This reflected the propensity of firms to respond to volatilities in the market by reducing pay or laying off workers.13 Economic distress was most pronounced in Burnley and Hull where nearly 13 percent and eight percent of members were claiming benefits respectively. There was also a clear divide across the Pennines, with higher levels of economic distress in the Lancashire mill towns where cotton manufacturers were beginning to suffer from competitive pressures. 13. Southall HR (1988) ‘The Origins of the Depressed Areas: Unemployment, Growth, and Regional Economic Structure in Britain before 1914’, The Economic History Review, 41 (2) 14. Source: Lee CH (1979) British regional employment statistics 1841-1971, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  • 16. Figure 6: Economic distress, 1901 Members claiming donation benefits, 1901 (%) Members Members 0.0 - 0.9 claiming claiming City benefit (%) City benefit (%) 1.0 - 2.2 Newcastle 2.3 - 3.7 Burnley 12.7 Reading 1.4 Sunderland 3.8 - 7.5 Hull 7.5 Wakefield 1.4 7.6 - 12.7 Blackburn 6.6 Grimsby 1.3 Middlesbrough Cardiff 5.2 Bradford 1.2 Swansea 4.6 York 1.1 Gloucester 4.4 Newcastle 1.1 Bradford Blackburn Rochdale Bolton 4.2 Sheffield 0.9 Preston York Burnley Newport 3.7 Barnsley 0.8 Blackpool Leeds Hull Wakefield Sunderland 3.5 Coventry 0.8 Bolton Huddersfield Grimsby Wigan Doncaster Liverpool 3.4 Portsmouth 0.7 Liverpool Barnsley Manchester Sheffield Manchester 3.2 Ipswich 0.6 Birkenhead Preston 3.0 Brighton 0.5 Warrington Bristol 3.0 Stoke 0.3 Stoke Nottingham Derby Southampton 2.8 Derby 0.2 Nottingham 2.5 Chatham 0.1 Norwich Leicester Peterborough Rochdale 2.4 Swindon 0.0 Birmingham Luton 2.4 Mansfield 0.0 Coventry Leeds 2.3 Doncaster 0.0 Huddersfield 2.2 Peterborough 0.0 Ipswich Norwich 2.1 Southend 0.0 Gloucester London 1.9 Northampton 0.0 Swansea Newport Swindon Birkenhead 1.9 Hastings 0.0 Cardiff London Plymouth 1.8 Worthing 0.0 Bristol Chatham Middlesbrough 1.7 Bournemouth 0.0 Warrington 1.7 Oxford 0.0 Wigan 1.7 Crawley n/a Southampton Hastings Birmingham 1.6 Aldershot n/a Portsmouth Brighton Blackpool 1.5 Cambridge n/a Leicester 1.5 Plymouth Source: Amalgamated Society of Engineers (ASE) and Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners (ASCJ), branch level statistics NB: Map excludes cities with fewer than 100 members Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
  • 17. Centre for Cities www.centreforcities.org Earnings While the average earnings within occupations would • Workers living in London and Oxford were also have varied to a degree across different cities, it is more likely to be employed in higher paid possible to examine the proportion of workers in higher professions. Nearly 25 percent were employed in wage occupations to broadly assess how wages might managerial or professional occupations. Manchester have differed across cities (Figure 7). also stands out with nearly a fifth of workers employed in these occupations. Solicitors and barristers were by far the highest paid across the occupational groups in 1901.15 The • At the other end of the spectrum, just 10 percent average solicitor would have earned 22 times more than of workers living in Coventry, Warrington and the average labourer. Skilled engineers and surveyors, Chatham were employed in higher wage business clerks and doctors were also amongst the occupations. In Chatham, just one percent of workers highest paid occupations. Labourers, miners and police living in the Medway towns were employed in higher were amongst the lowest paid. professional occupations. Low wages were an important cause of poverty 17 and skills were a strong determinant of wages. An estimated 40 percent of households headed by an unskilled worker were below the poverty line in 1901.16 • Victorian coastal towns were attractive residential locations for high wage managers and professionals. More than a third of those living in Southend and Blackpool – towns that expanded rapidly between 1891 and 1901 – worked in higher wage occupations. Over 10 percent of workers living in Southend were employed as higher professionals; by far the highest paid occupational group. The proportion of managers and professionals living in other coastal towns including Bournemouth, Hastings and Brighton was also high. 15. Williamson JG (1982) ‘The Structure of Pay in Britain, 1710-1911’, Research in Economic History, 7 (1982): 1-54 16. Household budget data, Labour Department of the Board of Trade from Gazeley I & Newell A (2007) ‘Poverty in Britain in 1904: An Early Social Survey Rediscovered’, University of Sussex, PRUS Working Paper no. 38
  • 18. Figure 7: Employment in higher wage occupations, 1911 Proportion of male workforce employed in high wage % employed % employed occupations, 1911 (%) in high wage in high wage City occupations City occupations 19.7 - 34.3 Newcastle 16.6 - 19.6 Southend 34.3 Preston 14.5 Sunderland 13.6 - 16.5 Blackpool 33.3 Portsmouth 14.5 11.1 - 13.5 Bournemouth 29.0 Northampton 14.4 Middlesbrough 9.6 - 11.0 Hastings 27.7 Derby 13.5 Brighton 26.7 Barnsley 13.4 Oxford 24.3 Rochdale 12.9 Bradford London 23.9 Sunderland 12.8 Blackburn Rochdale Preston York Burnley Manchester 19.6 Sheffield 12.2 Blackpool Leeds Hull Southampton 19.4 Burnley 12.1 Wakefield Bolton Huddersfield Bristol 19.0 Bolton 12.1 Wigan Liverpool Barnsley Cardiff 18.8 Wigan 11.7 Manchester Sheffield Birkenhead Bradford 18.7 Middlesbrough 11.0 Warrington Norwich 18.5 Swindon 10.5 Stoke Nottingham Reading 17.9 Stoke 10.4 Derby Ipswich 17.8 Coventry 10.1 Norwich Liverpool 16.9 Chatham 10.0 Birmingham Leeds 16.5 Warrington 9.6 Coventry York 16.3 Mansfield n/a Northampton Nottingham 16.3 Doncaster n/a Ipswich Birkenhead 16.2 Peterborough n/a Wakefield 15.6 Gloucester n/a Swansea Oxford Newport 15.3 Grimsby n/a Newport Swindon Southend Swansea 15.0 Cambridge n/a Cardiff London Bristol Reading Chatham Blackburn 14.7 Leicester n/a Hull 14.7 Worthing n/a Huddersfield 14.6 Crawley n/a Southampton Plymouth 14.6 Luton n/a Hastings Newcastle 14.5 Aldershot n/a Bournemouth Portsmouth Brighton Birmingham 14.5 Plymouth Source: Census, 1911; Routh, 1980 NB: Data only available for county boroughs Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
  • 19. Centre for Cities www.centreforcities.org Property values Property values provide an indication of the variation in levels of affluence and economic performance across cities in 1901. Local taxation returns are used to estimate rental values per capita across cities in 1901 (Figure 8). • Cities with the highest property values tended to be clustered around London and the South East. The variation in property values follows a similar spatial pattern to the proportion of higher wage occupations. Average property values were highest in towns such as Bournemouth, Hastings, London and Oxford. Rental values per capita in Bournemouth were three times higher than in parts of the West Midlands. 19 • Property values were also relatively high in parts of the North, including Blackpool and Manchester, and in South Wales. The influx of wealthy businessmen to Blackpool is likely to have pushed house prices up; Blackpool had the third highest property values just behind Bournemouth and London.17 There were also large variations within regions: property values in Manchester were more than double values in neighbouring Warrington. Bristol, 1901. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection 17. Walton JK (1998) Blackpool, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
  • 20. Figure 8: Property values, 1901 Gross estimated property value Estimated Estimated per capita, 1901 property property value per value per 9.2 - 10.6 City capita City capita 7.0 - 9.1 Newcastle Bournemouth 10.6 Plymouth 5.4 5.5 - 6.9 Sunderland London 10.6 Derby 5.4 4.3 - 5.4 Blackpool 9.1 Leicester 5.3 3.3 - 4.2 Middlesbrough Hastings 8.8 Nottingham 5.2 Oxford 8.6 Rochdale 5.2 Brighton 8.5 Gloucester 5.1 Bradford Crawley 8.3 Sheffield 5.1 Rochdale Blackburn York Cambridge 8.3 Sunderland 5.0 Burnley Blackpool Leeds Hull Cardiff 8.1 Northampton 5.0 Preston Wakefield Peterborough 7.8 Bolton 5.0 Bolton Barnsley Grimsby Wigan Doncaster 7.5 Aldershot 5.0 Liverpool Huddersfield Doncaster Manchester Birkenhead Warrington Sheffield Worthing 7.5 Leeds 4.9 Manchester 7.4 Ipswich 4.9 Mansfield Newport 7.2 Grimsby 4.9 Nottingham Stoke Liverpool 6.9 Middlesbrough 4.8 Derby Southend 6.5 Swansea 4.7 Peterborough Leicester Norwich Reading 6.2 Blackburn 4.7 Birmingham Bradford 6.2 Stoke 4.7 Northampton Coventry Huddersfield 6.1 Burnley 4.6 Cambridge Ipswich Southampton 6.0 Coventry 4.6 Wakefield 6.0 Barnsley 4.6 Gloucester Luton York 6.0 Mansfield 4.6 Oxford Newport Swindon Southend Birmingham 5.9 Portsmouth 4.5 Swansea London Chatham Luton 5.8 Preston 4.2 Cardiff Reading Bristol Newcastle 5.8 Wigan 4.1 Aldershot Birkenhead 5.7 Norwich 3.9 Crawley Southampton Bristol 5.7 Chatham 3.8 Worthing Hastings Swindon 5.6 Warrington 3.3 Brighton Portsmouth Hull 5.4 Bournemouth Plymouth Source: Local Taxation Returns, 1901 Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
  • 21. Centre for Cities www.centreforcities.org Industrial profile In 1901, over 84 percent of the male • ‘Industrial cities’, with more Southern exceptions included workforce were ‘engaged in than a third of employment Swindon where over 45 percent of occupations’; the remaining 16 concentrated in the employment was concentrated in percent were either ‘retired’ or manufacturing industries, manufacturing and London where ‘unoccupied’. were almost exclusively found the figure was nearly a third. in the North and Midlands. In times of economic instability, with Manufacturing dominated the jobs • The economic significance of limited protection for the market in the Lancashire towns the service industries varied unemployed, large numbers would surrounding Manchester and in hugely across cities in 1901. move between occupations rather Coventry, Northampton, The highest levels of employment than accept unemployment. This Birmingham and Huddersfield in commercial, professional and suggests occupational statistics (Figure 9). public services were found in provide a reliable measure of the size Bournemouth (19 percent) and of sectors within different cities, and • By contrast, manufacturing made London (18 percent). In contrast, as a result their industrial profiles. up just 10 percent of employment Swindon and Doncaster had very 21 in cities in the South, such as small service sectors (less than Worthing, Southend and Crawley. four percent).18 Preston, 1903. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection 18. Transport is not included in the definition of services.
  • 22. Figure 9: Ratio of manufacturing to services employment, 1901 Ratio of manufacturing Ratio of Ratio of to services manufacturing manufacturing employment, 1901 City to services City to services 0.8 - 1.7 Swindon 14.4 Norwich 3.1 Newcastle 1.8 - 2.6 Burnley 8.4 Ipswich 2.9 Sunderland 2.7 - 3.5 Wakefield 7.4 Hull 2.8 3.6 - 6.5 Middlesbrough 6.6 - 14.4 Doncaster 7.2 Portsmouth 2.6 Rochdale 7.2 Gloucester 2.6 Coventry 7.2 Swansea 2.6 Blackburn 7.1 York 2.6 Bradford Rochdale Bolton 7.1 Blackpool 2.5 Blackburn York Burnley Warrington 6.7 Cambridge 2.5 Blackpool Leeds Hull Preston Wakefield Mansfield 6.7 Grimsby 2.4 Wigan Bolton Barnsley Grimsby Stoke 6.7 Bristol 2.1 Liverpool Huddersfield Doncaster Manchester Barnsley 6.5 Peterborough 2.1 Birkenhead Warrington Sheffield Middlesbrough 6.3 Plymouth 2.0 Mansfield Northampton 6.1 Worthing 1.9 Nottingham Stoke Sheffield 6.0 Newport 1.7 Derby Birmingham 5.9 Birkenhead 1.7 Leicester Peterborough Norwich Preston 5.7 Liverpool 1.6 Birmingham Huddersfield 5.3 Cardiff 1.5 Northampton Sunderland 5.3 London 1.5 Coventry Cambridge Ipswich Leicester 5.3 Reading 1.5 Bradford 5.1 Crawley 1.4 Gloucester Luton Nottingham 4.9 Brighton 1.3 Oxford Leeds 4.7 Aldershot 1.3 Newport Swindon Southend Swansea Derby 4.6 Southampton 1.3 London Chatham Cardiff Reading Bristol Chatham 4.5 Oxford 1.2 Aldershot Manchester 3.5 Southend 1.2 Crawley Luton 3.3 Hastings 0.8 Southampton Worthing Hastings Newcastle 3.2 Bournemouth 0.8 Brighton Portsmouth Wigan 3.2 Bournemouth Plymouth Source: Census 1901 Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
  • 23. Centre for Cities www.centreforcities.org Industrial diversity and specialisation The proportion of employment concentrated in the largest • Stoke was the only city to specialise in ceramics. occupational group provides an estimate of the degree of Widely known as ‘the Potteries’, over 30 percent of the specialisation in urban economies. workforce were employed in the industry in 1901, more than 25 times the national average. The most specialised cities included Northampton, Sheffield, Middlesbrough, Swindon and Burnley. • Specialisation in some cities was reinforced by the dominance of a few large firms. • Northampton was one of the most specialised Middlesbrough’s steel industry was dominated by two cities in 1901. Just under 45 percent of the workforce large firms. Dorman Long (4,300 employees) and – over 11,000 – were employed in shoe and boot Bolckow Vaughan (5,500 employees) accounted for the manufacture. Leicester was also a major centre for majority of employment in the steel industry in the city.19 shoe and boot manufacture with over 17,000 employed in the industry. Yet Leicester was a larger, more diverse • Cities and towns in the South East were more economy where transport and construction were also diversified. No individual sector accounted for more important industries and, as a result, the shoe and boot than a fifth of total employment. Construction was the 23 industry accounted for less than a third of total dominant sector in growing towns in the South, including employment. Aldershot, Luton and Crawley. Yet it accounted for less than 20 percent of employment in Crawley and just five • Metal and machinery manufacture accounted for percent in Aldershot. Transport was also a significant more than a third of employment in several cities employer in cities such as Brighton and Cambridge. in the North and Midlands. By 1901 Sheffield’s steel factories and related industries employed over 50,000 workers (41 percent of the workforce) as firms capitalised on the city’s reputation for quality. In Sunderland 20 percent of employment was concentrated in shipbuilding alone. • Blackburn and Burnley were the most highly specialised economies of Lancashire’s mill towns. Over a third of the workforce in Blackburn and Burnley were employed in the textiles industry. Employment in textiles was five times more concentrated in these cities than the national average. 19. Shaw C (2006) ‘The Large Manufacturing Employers of 1907’, Business History, 25:1, 42-60
  • 24. Figure 10: Newcastle Industrial concentration, 1901 Sunderland Middlesbrough Major occupation Mining Transport Bradford Blackburn Rochdale Metals & machinery Preston Burnley York Construction Leeds Blackpool Hull Brick, cement, pottery & glass Wakefield Bolton Huddersfield Grimsby Textiles Wigan Barnsley Doncaster Food, tobacco, drinks & lodgings Liverpool Manchester Sheffield Birkenhead Dress Warrington Mansfield Proportion of male Stoke workforce employed Nottingham Derby in single largest occupational group, 1901 (%) Norwich Leicester Peterborough Birmingham 35 - 44 Northampton Coventry Cambridge 27 - 34 Ipswich 23 - 26 Luton 19 -22 Gloucester Swansea Oxford 14 - 18 Newport Swindon Southend 5 - 13 Cardiff London Bristol Reading Chatham Aldershot Crawley Southampton Worthing Hastings Bournemouth Brighton Portsmouth Plymouth Source: Census 1901 Note: Levels of specialisation may be underestimated in some cities due to the exclusion of female workers. Women were predominantly employed in domestic service, textiles and clothing. The inclusion of female workers is likely to increase the manufacturing bias in the textile towns where a high proportion of women and children were employed. Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown copyright and database right 2012.
  • 25. Centre for Cities www.centreforcities.org City Relationships case study: Lancashire Mill Towns The Cotton Mills were at the heart of the Industrial interdependent economies with Manchester and its Royal Revolution. Lancashire accounted for 75.8 percent of Exchange at the top of the hierarchy. Businesses located cotton workers employed in the UK in 1901.20 The bulk of in Manchester carried out commercial and distributive the industry was concentrated within an area that functions to support the trade. Liverpool also formed part measured 30 miles east to west and 20 miles north to of this network, providing access to the raw cotton south, incorporating the seven Lancashire towns and markets.21 cities of: Manchester, Bolton, Burnley, Blackburn, Oldham, Preston and Stockport. The specialisation of each city grew out of and built upon its existing economic strengths: the shipping communities The urban areas of Lancashire housed a large number of in Liverpool, the merchant community in Manchester and small, vertically specialised firms that were highly the engineering industry in towns such as Preston. 25 localised. As a result, each town specialised in different Interdependencies between the urban areas and their stages of textile production – Oldham in spinning and place in the economic hierarchy are still characteristic of Preston in weaving, for example – forming a network of Greater Manchester’s economy today.22 Manchester Ship Canal, 1894. Copyright The Francis Frith Collection 20. Rodgers HB (1962) ‘The changing geography of the Lancashire cotton industry’, Economic Geography, 38 (4): 299-314 21. http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/overview/ 22. Centre for Cities, The Work Foundation & SURF (2009) City Relationships: Economic linkages in Northern city regions, Newcastle-upon-Tyne: The Northern Way