This document summarizes several theories of mediated communication and culture. It discusses theories related to mass communication vs mediated communication, media richness, uses and gratifications theory, agenda setting theory, and cultivation theory. It also covers theories of culture including Hofstede's cultural dimensions, gender differences in communication, and generational differences. Finally, it explains face negotiation theory and how conflict styles vary across cultures based on concepts of self-face and other-face concern.
Beyond the EU: DORA and NIS 2 Directive's Global Impact
Getting Together to Discuss Theories of Mediated and Cultural Communication
1. Week 4: Getting Together
Explaining Theories of Mediated Communication
2. Mass communication vs. mediated communication
Mass communication: concerned with the media, and
complex organizations that distribute messages to the
public
Mediated communication: any communication in which
something exists between the source and the receiver
All mass communication is mediated, but not all mediated
communication is mass communication.
3. Daft & Lengel
Premise: as new communication technologies develop,
the decision about the best way to send a message
becomes increasingly complex
4. Media richness refers to a medium’s information
carrying capacity
Medium richness is determined by four
characteristics:
1. Speed of feedback (synchronous or asynchronous)
2. Ability to personalize the message
3. Availability of multiple cues
4. Language variety
5. How Ambiguous is the Message?
Ambiguity: possibility of multiple interpretations
Ambiguous messages run a greater risk of being
misunderstood
Communication effectiveness = match between message
ambiguity and richness of the medium selected
6. Richer Media
• Face-to-Face
• Video Conferencing
• Telephone
• Texting, Instant Messaging
• E-mail
• Recordings
• Memos, Letters
• Bulk Mail, Brochures, Pamphlets, Flyers
Leaner Media
7. Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch
Premise: UGT maintains that because humans have
options and free will, individuals will make specific
decisions about which media to use and when to use
them
8. Assumptions of UGT
1. Audience members actively use various media to
fulfill certain needs
Media itself is not passive, involuntary, or coerced; media
offers options
2. Mass communication is not something that “happens
to you” ; a person must identify his or her need and
make a media choice
Audience members choose a medium and allow
themselves to be swayed, changed, and influenced.
3. Third, media outlets compete with other available
means of satisfying personal needs
9. Gratification Selected Examples
Entertainment • Listening to music to set a mood
• Playing on Facebook because you’re
bored
Information • Seeking advice about practical matters,
like how to cook a turkey (Food
Network)
Personal identity • Reading Vogue or Esquire so you know
how to dress and be considered stylish
Personal relationships & social • Listening to the Sports Radio Network
interaction on your drive to work so you can talk
about it with coworkers
10. McCombs & Shaw
Premise: news media have an agenda; news media
tells audiences what “news” to consider as important.
11. Two assumptions
News media have an agenda
Most people desire help when trying to understand and
evaluate politics and political reality
Criteria for Measuring Media’s Agenda
Length
Position
12. Framing the news
Gatekeepers select, emphasize, elaborate, and even
exclude news stories or parts of news stories to create a
certain effect
Elements of Framing
Selection What stories are chosen?
Emphasis What focus is taken?
Elaboration What is added to develop story?
Exclusion What stories or aspects of stories are not
covered?
13. Issues and Individuals Most Affected
Despite media’s ability to influence, an individual’s
thoughts, opinions, and actions are not predetermined
Certain issues and situations are more likely to influence
audience thought:
Political issues
Individual’s need for orientation: depends on topic’s
relevance and person’s uncertainty about the issue
Gatekeepers selectively determine an agenda for what’s
news
14. Gerbner
Premise: Cultivation theory predicts that viewers who
watch lots of TV will overestimate the occurrence of
real-life violence, thereby perceiving the world as a
“mean and scary” place
15. Assumptions:
1. Television has become central to American life and
culture
2. TV influences audience perceptions of social reality,
thereby shaping American culture in terms of how
individuals reason and relate with others
3. Television’s effects are limited
16. Focus on Violence
Definition:
“Overt expression of physical force (with or without
weapon, against self or others) compelling action
against one’s will on pain of being hurt and/or killed or
threatened to be so victimized as part of the plot” (p.
280)
Violence index
Objective research instrument; uses content analysis to
measure the prevalence, frequency, and role of
characters that are involved in TV violence
17. Symbolic double jeopardy
Research illustrates an imbalance with regard to who is
victimized
Minority persons are significantly less visible on TV than
in real life, and
Minority TV characters are much more likely to be
portrayed as victims of violence.
18. Viewers’ attitudes are cultivated in two ways:
1. Mainstreaming
2. Resonance
The result? Mean World Syndrome
Heavy TV viewers more likely to develop
Cynical, fearful outlook
World is “mean and scary place”
20. Culture: one’s identification with and acceptance into
a group that shares symbols, meanings, experiences,
and behavior
Cross-cultural communication
Intercultural communication
21. Hofstede
Premise: Research revealed that there are five
dimensions that can be used to explain, differentiate,
and rank various cultures
22. Individualism—Collectivism
Extent to which cultures value and privilege individual’s
success over the group’s success or vice versa
Low-context communication
High-context communication
23. Uncertainty Avoidance (High—Low)
Extent to which appreciate or avoid unstructured,
unclear, or unpredictable situations
Low uncertainty avoidance cultures: more inclined to take
risks, innovate, and value “thinking outside of the box”
High uncertainty avoidance cultures maintain strict codes of
behavior, and support a belief in absolute truths
24. Power Distance (High—Low)
Extent to which people with little power in society
consider inequity normal and acceptable
Low power distance cultures value minimization of power
distances
High power distance cultures accept power as a scarce
resource
25. Masculinity—Femininity
Emphasizes the relationship between biological sex and
what is considered sex-appropriate behavior
Masculine cultures: rely on distinct sex roles for men and
women
Feminine cultures: fewer rigid roles for behavior based on
biological sex
26. Time Orientation: Long-term—Short-term
Extent to which cultures value a long-term or short-term
approach to planning the future
Long-term orientation: associated with thrift, savings, and
perseverance
Short-term orientation: associated with desire for immediate
gratification
27. Maltz & Borker
Mulac, Bradac, and Gibbons
Premise: gender is socially constructed; biological sex
differences in communication are minimal; gender
differences in communication do exist when examined
as a separate construct
28. Sex – biological classification (male or female)
Gender – psychological and social associations of
femininity and masculinity; may or may not correlate
with biological sex
29. Research shows little support for the myth that men
and women differ in communication behavior simply
because of biological sex
Gender research shows difference between masculine
and feminine communication styles:
A feminine communication style is positively related to:
Romantic relationship satisfaction
Positive and collaborative strategies for dealing with jealousy
Decreased loneliness among long-distance friends
30. Theoretical Examinations of Gender
Theory Main Idea
Standpoint Men and women have different experiences that
Theory shape the way they view the world. Because of these
variations, men and women communicate
differently
Tannen’s Gender Women use communication to establish
Styles connections with others, whereas men use
communication to establish or maintain power over
others
Muted Group Because men have more power in society, language
Theory and meaning is biased toward a male perspective
on life. Women must adapt and use male language
or go unheard
31. Twenge & Campbell
Premise: because each generation is influenced by
specific events, members of a generation share
symbols, meanings, experiences, and behavior that is
distinct from other generations
32. Four generations in the today’s workplace
Generations Selected Characteristics
Veterans Value respect, discipline; work is obligation; formal
(1922-1945) communication; autocratic leadership
Baby Boomers Value optimism, involvement; work is for self-
(1946-1964) fulfillment; face-to-face communication, meetings;
consensual leadership
Generation X Values cynicism, informality; work as entrepreneurial;
(1965-1980) direct communication; comfortable with technology;
confrontational leadership
Millenials Value clarity, flexibility; work as mechanism for success;
(1980-2000) constant communication/contact; relies on technology
to communicate; passive/aggressive leadership
33. Ting-Toomey
Premise: theory explains and predicts the cultural
differences associated with conflict management
34. Face: desired self-image
Positive face
Negative face
Individuals try to balance their own positive and
negative face needs while also attending to their
partner’s face needs
35. Face + Cultural Orientation
Individualism—Collectivism
Individualistic cultures: emphasize negative face
Collectivistic cultures: emphasize positive face
Power Distance
Low power distance cultures prefer to view individuals as
equals
High power distance cultures rely on hierarchy and status
difference
36. Conflict
North American conflict styles: vary on assertiveness
and cooperation (Thomas & Kilmann, 1977)
1. Avoid
2. Accommodate
3. Compete
4. Compromise
5. Collaborate
37. Face + Culture + Conflict Management
Ting-Toomey’s cross cultural research adds 3 conflict
styles based on self and other face concern
1. Emotionally expressive
2. Passive-aggressive
3. Third-party help
38. Oblige Integrate
(High)
Avoid
Other-Face Concern
Compromise
Passive Emotional
Aggression Expression
Third-Party
Help
Dominate
(Low)
(Low) Self-Face Concern (High)
Collectivist Cultures
Individualist Cultures
Used by Both Cultures