This is a paper on thinking about thinking. Systems engineering is an emerging disciple in the area of defining and solving problems of (Wymore, 1993). The emerging paradigm for problem solving is “systems thinking”. Both systems engineering and systems thinking have recognized the need to view a system from more than one perspective. This paper proposes a set of perspectives for applying systems thinking in systems engineering and then defines a systems thinking perspective set of views for a system, the use of which will provide one way of aligning systems thinking to systems engineering and contains an example of applying the set of perspectives to the Royal Air Force Battle of Britain Air Defence System and shows that not only does the set of perspectives provide a way to model the system; it also picked up two potentially fatal flaws in the system. The paper then adapts an existing approach for measuring the application of systems thinking and concludes with some observations on the state of systems engineering from the STPs.

1. Applying systems thinking &
aligning it to systems
engineering
Joseph Kasser
Tim Mackley
The writing of this paper was funded by a grant from The Leverhulme Trust to Cranfield University.

2. Contribution of paper
• There is a need for systems thinking
– little being published on how to teach it
– it is not being taught or applied very well
– Need a way to teach and apply it
• Use systems engineering to solve problem
• STPs Provide
– anchor points for systems thinking
– “Interesting” perspectives
Presented to the INCOSE 2008 Symposium page 2 2

3. Topics
• Understanding a system
• Systems thinking
• Systems thinking perspectives (STP)
• Observations from the STPs
• Systems thinking and critical thinking
• Summary
• Conclusion
• Questions and discussion
Presented to the INCOSE 2008 Symposium page 3 3

4. Problem solving
• What to do?
– Develop understanding of situation
– Define problem
• What to do ...
– Identify alternative solutions
• Ways how to ...
– Establish evaluation criteria
• To help determine “best” way
– Make decision
– You have solution!
• How to do it?
Presented to the INCOSE 2008 Symposium page 4 4

5. To understand a thing
• Analysis (machine age)* • Systems Thinking
– Take apart the thing to be (systems age)*
understood;
– A thing to be understood is
– Try to understand how these conceptualized as a part of
parts worked; one or more larger wholes,
– Assemble an understanding of not as a whole to be taken
the parts into an apart;
understanding of the whole. – An understanding of the larger
system is sought;
– The system to be understood
is explained in terms of its role
or function in the containing
* Ackoff, 1991
system.
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6. Representation of a
system
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7. Understanding a
system
External
Internal
Blindspots
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8. Perspectives &
communications
• Different perspectives
• Cognitive filters
• Pages
• Wavelength External
• No anchor points
Presented to the INCOSE 2008 Symposium page 8 8

9. Systems thinking
perspectives (STP)
1. Operational
2. Functional
3. Big picture
4. Structural
5. Generic
6. Continuum
7. Temporal
8. Quantitative
9. Scientific
Presented to the INCOSE 2008 Symposium page 9

10. Operational
perspective (who)
• How things really work – not how they
theoretically should work
• Use cases
• Concepts of operations
• Cause and effect – linear thinking
– Simplistic thinking
– Useful for interface analysis (closed system)
• Cycles, periods – non linear thinking
• Relationships
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11. Functional perspective
(what)
• Ongoing interdependent processes
• Internal relationships
• Feedback loops
• “closed system view”
– Cause and effect
– Loops
Presented to the INCOSE 2008 Symposium page 11 11

12. Big picture perspective
• Environment and context
• Assumptions behind the design of the
system
• Inputs and outputs
• Relationships between inputs
– As they affect the system
• Filter (abstract) out non-pertinent details
• “open system view”
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13. Big picture - 1
bbbb
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14. Big picture - 2
SDLC
SDLC
SDLC
SDLC
SDLC
SDLC
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15. Common Elements of a
System
A component or
“The environment”
element
A relationship
Output
Input (Flood and Jackson, 1991)
Boundary
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16. The Real World (Big
picture)
Output
Input
Other factors may have an
effect on the real world, due to
the arbitrary location of the
system boundary
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17. Structural perspective
• Structural decomposition
• Hierarchies
• Internal subsystem boundaries
• Architectures
• Physical and virtual components
• Effects on the system due to its internal
structure
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18. Generic perspective
• How the system theoretically should work
• Looking for similarities with other systems
in other domains
– “out of the box” perspective
• Historical perspective w.r.t. other systems
• Lessons learned from other projects
• Determination if those lessons are
applicable to current project
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19. Continuum perspective
• Selection of alternatives
• Tradeoffs
• Recognising that
– Things are not necessarily “either-or”
• there may be states in between
• one size does NOT fit all (optimally)
• things are situational
– Changing conditions may cause movement
along the continuum
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20. Continuum STP – Not!
• “I suppose it is tempting, if the
only tool you have is a hammer,
to treat everything as if it were a
nail” (Maslow, 1966) pages 15
and 16).
• “SE is solution to all problems”
– SOS are in Area 3G
– Column G
• Operations Research?
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21. Continuum thinking
1. Nails are the solution to one class of
problems,
2. Nails might be a solution to other classes
of problems (although not necessarily
optimal), and
3. The rest of the classes of problems should
be monitored while the systems engineer
gets the correct tool to tackle that class of
problem.
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22. Temporal perspectives
• How the system behaves over time
– Patterns of behaviour
• cycles
• prevention
– Availability
• Maintenance, Logistics
– Obsolescence
– Reflection on past
– Lessons learned
• Current paradigm is a step in the staircase of history
– open mind to new thoughts
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23. Quantitative perspective
• Numbers must be useful not necessarily perfect
• Numbers need not be absolute
– Relative comparisons
• Quantification rather than measurement
• Pareto principle
• Helps to understand relationships
– OSTP and FSTP
• Provides values for parameters in models and
simulations
– OSTP and FSTP
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24. Scientific perspective
• Statement of the problem
• Similar to ‘trial and error’ approach to
problem solving
• Hypothesis formulation and testing
• Research questions
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25. Journalist’s
perspective
• Who?
• What?
• Where?
• When?
• Why? Various perspectives
• How?
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26. STP traceability Matrix
1
2
3
4
5
6
STP
Who?
What?
Where?
When?
Why?
How?
Operational
Functional
Active Brainstorming
Big picture
Structural
Generic
Continuum
Temporal
Quantitative
Scientific
There may not be an immediate answer to every question
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27. Combinations
• STPs provide Anchor Points
• Combinations are also useful
– Structural + Temporal
• Landscapes and frameworks
• Gantt charts
– Waterfall perspective
– Generic + Temporal
• Lessons learned
• TRIZ
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28. Problem solving Operational/
Temporal STP
Delay
Feedback
Cause Delay
Symptom
(effect)
Delay
Manifestation of
problem
Delay Action?
Attempted
solution
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29. Similarity to Big picture
Direct and indirect connections
bbbb
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30. Structural/Temporal STP
provides the HKM (2D)
Framework for understanding SE
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31. Topics
• Understanding a system
• Systems thinking
• Systems thinking perspectives (STP)
• Observations from the STPs
• Systems thinking and critical thinking
• Summary
• Conclusion
• Questions and discussion
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32. Cook’s Views
Layer 5 Socio-Economic Layer
System scale
Layer 4 Supply Chain Layer
Layer 3 Business Layer
Traditional Systems Engineering
Layer 2 System Layer
Layer 1 Product Layer
Life-cycle temporal focus
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33. Cook’s Views
Layer 5 Socio-Economic Layer
System scale
Layer 4 Supply Chain Layer
Information Systems
Layer 3 Business Layer
Layer 2 System Layer
Layer 1 Product Layer
Life-cycle temporal focus
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34. Cook’s Views
Layer 5 Socio-Economic Layer
System scale
Layer 4 Supply Chain Layer
Layer 3 Business Layer
Military Platforms
Layer 2 System Layer
Layer 1 Product Layer
Life-cycle temporal focus
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35. Cook’s Views
Layer 5 Socio-Economic Layer
System scale
Layer 4 Supply Chain Layer
Layer 3 Business Layer
Layer 2 System Layer
Contemporary T&E
Layer 1 Product Layer
Life-cycle temporal focus
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36. Cook’s Views
Layer 5 Socio-Economic Layer
System scale
Layer 4 Supply Chain Layer
Capability Layer 3 Business Layer
Information Systems
Development
Military Platforms
Traditional Systems Engineering
Layer 2 System Layer
Contemporary T&E
Layer 1 Product Layer
Life-cycle temporal focus
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37. Standards in the
HKMF?
499/632
1220
15288/CMMI
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38. Waterfall model
Requirements
Design
Anchor point
Implement
From problem to solution
Test
Problem Activity Answer
Operate
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39. Soft Systems
Methodology
CATWOE
Systems Thinking Perspective
Client/customer
Big picture
Actor
Operational
Transformation
Functional and performance
Weltanschauung
Big Picture
Owner
Big Picture
Environment
Big Picture
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40. Systems Dynamics
• System – a collection of components interacting
for a purpose (Clark, 1998).
• “System dynamics is the study of processes
through the use of systems and how they can be
modeled, explored and explained” (Clark, 1998).
• A process consists of activities or functions.
• Hence in systems thinking, systems dynamics is
a tool with which to analyse the behaviour of a
system over time (functional and operational
STPs).
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41. Initial mapping:
DODAF and STPs
All Operational Technical
System View
View View View
Operational X X - X
Functional X X X X
Big picture X - - X
Structural X - X X
Generic - - - -
Continuum - - - -
Temporal - - - -
Quantitative - - - x
Scientific - - - -
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42. Systems thinking &
critical thinking
Indicates need for
Critical
Systems Thinking Thinking
Provides
viewpoints
(anchor
points) for Provides rules for
knowledge thinking &
communicating
knowledge received
from the viewpoints
Presented to the INCOSE 2008 Symposium page 42

43. You are applying systems &
critical thinking when..
• When you reason about things
• Where other’s don’t, you see
– patterns in “unrelated” things
– ambiguity
• you develop a “strange” sense of humour
– solutions instead of problems
• by changing the viewpoint of the problem
• different or combination
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44. Summary
• Understanding a system
• Systems thinking
• Systems thinking perspectives (STP)
• Observations from the STPs
• Systems thinking and an introduction to
critical thinking
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45. Conclusion
• "When people know a number of things,
and one of them understands how the
things are systematically categorized and
related, that person has an advantage over
the others who don't have the same
understanding.“
• Luzato, M.C., The Way of God, about
1735.
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46. Postscript
• Applying systems thinking is difficult
• Changing your way of thinking is even
more difficult
• Stuck in a discussion
– Introduce another perspective
• Use active brainstorming table
• See the Battle of Britain example in the
paper
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47. Questions, and
comments?
Course
Systems
Systems engineering thinking Communications
Examine ORP,
Systems Team
HKMF each FRAT, Presentations
thinking activities
phase in SPARKS
perspectives
the
SDLC
Active
brainstorming
Presented to the INCOSE 2008 Symposium page 47 47