1. The Big Picture
Capturing the Forest then the Trees
Sociology is classified as being
one of the social sciences.
Please name the other social
sciences and define these disciplines

2.  Science is the study of the material world
using human reason.
 Science, by definition, limits itself to
what can be observed, measured and
verified, known as empiricism.

4. Political Science
 The scientific study of how societies govern the
people;
 Analyzes the role of government in regulating
people’s behavior, as well as
 How and to what degree it serves to protect
societal members of threats (i.e., internal and
external)
as well as influencing/regulating services,
goods
and resources (i.e., energy, commodities, etc.)

5. Psychology
 concerned with the behavior, feelings and
thoughts of individuals as influenced by social
stimuli and/or the person’s physiology.
 The subfield of abnormal psychology is
concerned with mental disorders, ranging from
psychoses to neuroses
 The applied field of clinical psychology offers
direct patient-care mechanisms to treat mental
problems in individuals.

6. Anthropology.
 Anthropology is a broad social science concerned with
the study of humans from a social, biological and
cultural perspective
 Physical anthropology divides into two areas, one
related to tracing human evolution and the study of
primates, and the other concerned with contemporary
human characteristics stemming from the mixture of
genetic adaptations and culture.
 Sociocultural anthropology is concerned with broad
aspects of the adaptation of humans to their cultures—
with social organization, language, ethnographic details,
and, in general, the understanding of culturally mitigated
patterns of behavior

7. Economics
 It is perhaps the oldest of the social sciences,
with its concern with wealth and poverty, trade
and industry
 Concerned with understanding how societis
distribute, value and produce and/or import
goods and services.
 Microeconomics is largely concerned with
issues such as competitive markets, wage
rates, and profit margins. Macroeconomics
deals with broader issues, such as national
income, employment, and economic systems

8. Sociology
 It is the social science discipline that
study’s human society and social
interaction, in group settings.

9. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
 A cross-disciplinary social scientific
discipline.
 Social psychologist study the relationship
between (the) individual(s) in affecting the
 Social groups and societal context as well
as how social group affiliation and society
 Affect (the) individual(s).

10. Dimensions Of Comte’s
Positivism
 Methodological - the application of
scientific knowledge to physical and social
phenomena.
 Social and political - the use of such
knowledge to predict the likely results of
different policies so the best one could be
chosen.

11. August Comte
 The “founder of
sociology.”
 Comte believed objective
knowledge was
attainable only through
science rather than
religion.
 Positivism is a belief
that the world can be
understood through
scientific inquiry.

12. Theory
 A set of logically interrelated statements
that attempt to describe, explain and
predict outcomes.

13. Levels of Sociological Analysis

14. Class lets begin to identify the
various Sociological Theories
 There are 4 major sociological theories;
 Please someone, identify the most
conservative theory among the 4;
 We will be talking about each of the
theories, comparing and contrasting them
in terms of the Marriage and Family
Institution, what you indicated is the most
popular of all the social institutions.

15. Marriage and Family Discussion
 Drawn from the textbook I adopted for my
marriage and family course;
 Lamanna, Mary Ann & Agnes Riedmann.
2000. (7th Edition) Marriages and
Families: Making Choices in a Diverse
Society. Wadsworth Thomas Learning
Publishing Company. ISBN 0-534-52507-5

16. Major Sociological Theoretical Approaches
I . Symbolic Interaction
Levels of Analysis Micro-Sociological
Nature of Society A social reality
continuously created
through social
interaction.
Basis of Shared symbols and
Social interaction meanings
Focus of Analysis Individuals of social
actors

19. Major Sociological Theoretical Approaches
II. Social Exchange; aka Post Modernism
Levels of Analysis Micro-Sociological
Nature of Society A social reality
continuously created
through social interaction.
Basis of Social Reciprocity
Social interaction Elementary Forms of
Social Behavior
Focus of Analysis Postindustrialization, consumerism,
and global communications bring
into question assumptions about
social life and the nature of reality

23. Major Sociological Theoretical Approaches
III. Structural/Functional
Levels of Analysis Macro-Sociological
Nature of Society A social system consisting of
interdependent units
Basis of Consensus deriving from
Social interaction shared beliefs and values.
Focus of Analysis Social order and the
perpetuation of society

26. IV. CONFLICT THEORY
Levels of Macro-
Analysis Sociological
Nature of A social order characterized by
Society competing groups and classes,
each pursuing its own interests
Basis of Conflict and coercion
Social
interaction
Focus of Competition for control of limited
Analysis resources

32. Chapter 2
Sociological Research
Methods

33. Chapter Outline
 Why is Sociological Research
Necessary?
 The Sociological Research Process
 Research Methods
 Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

34. Sharpening Your Focus
 What is the relationship between theory
and research?
 What are the steps in the conventional
research process?
 What can qualitative methods add to our
understanding of human behavior?

35. Theory and Research Cycle
 A theory is a set of logically interrelated
statements that attempt to describe, explain,
and predict social events.
 Research is the process of systematically
collecting information for the purpose of testing
an existing theory or generating a new one.
 The theory and research cycle consists of
deductive and inductive approaches.

36. Conventional Research
Model
1. Select and define the research problem.
2. Review previous research.
3. Formulate the hypothesis.
4. Develop the research design.
5. Collect and analyze the data.
6. Draw conclusions and report the
findings.

37. Theory and Research Cycle

39. Deductive Approach
1. Theories generate hypotheses.
2. Hypotheses lead to observations.
3. Observations lead to the formation of
generalizations.
4. Generalizations are used to support the
theory, suggest modifications to it, or
refute it.

40. Inductive Approach
1. Specific observations suggest
generalizations.
2. Generalizations produce a tentative
theory.
3. The theory is tested through the
formation of hypotheses.
4. Hypotheses may provide suggestions
for additional observations.

41. Sociology and Scientific
Evidence
 Many sociologists believe that two basic
scientific standards must be met:
1. Scientific beliefs should be supported
by good evidence or information.
2. These beliefs should be open to public
debate and critiques from other
scholars, with alternative
interpretations being considered.

42. Sociology and Scientific
Evidence
 Sociology involves debunking,
unmasking false ideas or opinions.
 Two approaches:
 Normative
 Empirical

43. Hypothesis Defined
A predict statement derived from a theoretical perspective,
that ascribes how two or more variables relate to each other.

44. Variables
 The independent variable is presumed
to cause or determine a dependent
variable.
 The dependent variable is assumed to
depend on or be caused by the
independent variable(s).

45. Demonstrating Cause-and-
Effect Relationships
1. You must show that a correlation exists
between the variables.
2. You must ensure that the independent
variable preceded the dependent
variable.
3. You must make sure that any change in
the dependent variable was not due to a
variable outside the stated hypothesis.

46. Cause and Effect
Relationships
 Why do older African
American men have a
lower rate of suicide than
older white males?
 Questions like this are
the foundation for study
as sociologists try to
understand cause-and-
effect relationships.

47. Variables
 Independent
 Dependent
 Intervening

48. Hypothesized Relationships
Between Variables
 Causal Relationship

49. Hypothesized Relationships
Between Variables
 Inverse Causal Relationship

50. Hypothesized Relationships
Between Variables
 Multiple-cause Explanation

51. Question
 In a medical study, lung cancer could be
the _____ variable, while smoking could
be the ______ variable.
a. dependant, independent
b. independent, dependant
c. valid, reliable
d. reliable, valid

52. Answer: a
 In a medical study, lung cancer could be
the dependant variable, while smoking
could be the independent variable.

53. Operational Definition
 An explanation of an
abstract concept in
terms of observable
features that are
specific enough to
measure the variable.
 The operational
definition of an A may
be an exam average
of 90% or above.

54. Question
Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument:
A. accurately measures what it is
supposed to measure.
B. yields consistent results.
C. approximates a true experiment.
D. relies on other variables to preserve
validity.

55. Answer: A
 Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument accurately measures
what it is supposed to measure.

56. Validity
 The extent to which a study or research
instrument accurately measures what it is
supposed to measure.

57. Reliability
 The extent to which a study or research
instrument yields consistent results when
applied to different individuals at one time or to
the same individuals over time.

58. Sharpening Your Focus
 Why is it important to have a variety of research
methods available?
 Why is a code of ethics for sociological
research necessary?

59. Triangulation
 Combining multiple methods in a given
study.
 Triangulation refers not only to research
methods but also to multiple data
sources, investigators, and theoretical
perspectives in a study.
 Multiple data sources include persons,
situations, contexts, and time.

60. ASA Code of Ethics
1. Disclose research findings in full and
include all possible interpretations of the
data.
2. Safeguard the participants’ right to
privacy and dignity while protecting them
from harm.

61. ASA Code of Ethics
3. Protect confidential information provided
by participants.
4. Acknowledge research collaboration and
disclose all financial support.

62. Sampling
 In random sampling, every member of
an entire population being studied has the
same chance of being selected.
 In probability sampling, participants are
deliberately chosen because they have
specific characteristics, possibly including
such factors as age, sex, race/ethnicity,
and educational attainment.

63. Research and Social Factors
 Sociological research
looks at factors that
motivate suicide
bombers.
 Some researchers might
ask why suicide bomber
Raed Abdel-Hameed
Mesk would take his own
life while committing a
terrorist attack.

64. Research Methods
 Specific strategies or techniques for
systematically conducting research.

65. Qualitative Research Method
1. Researcher begins with a general
approach rather than a highly detailed
plan.
2. Researcher has to decide when the
literature review and theory application
should take place.

66. Qualitative Research Method
3. The study presents a detailed view of
the topic.
4. Access to people or other resources that
can provide necessary data is crucial.
5. Appropriate research method(s) are
important for acquiring useful qualitative
data.

67. Survey Research
 Describes a population without
interviewing each individual.
 Standardized questions force
respondents into categories.
 Relies on self-reported information, and
some people may not be truthful.

68. Survey Definitions
 Respondents are persons who provide data for
analysis through interviews or questionnaires.
 A questionnaire is a printed research
instrument containing a series of items to which
subjects respond.
 An interview is a research method in which an
interviewer asks the respondent questions and
records the answers.

69. Surveys and Polls
 Conducting surveys
and polls is an
important means of
gathering data from
respondents.

70. Computer-assisted
Telephone Interviewing
 The widespread use of answering machines, voice mail,
and caller ID may make this form of research more
difficult in the twenty-first century.

71. Research Methods:
Field Research
 Study of social life in its natural setting.
 Observing and interviewing people where
they live, work, and play.
 Generates observations that are best
described verbally rather than
numerically.

72. Field Research
 How might sociologists study the ways in which
parents and their college-age children cope
when the students first leave home.

73. Approaches to Field
Research
 Participant observation
 Collecting observations while part of the
activities of the group being studied.
 Ethnography
 Detailed study of the life and activities
of a group of people over a period of
years.

74. Approaches to Field
Research
 Case Studies - In-depth, multifaceted
investigation of a single event, person, or
social grouping.
 A collective case study involves
multiple cases.
 An unstructured interview is an extended,
open-ended interaction between an
interviewer and an interviewee.

75. Ethnographic Research
 Sociologist Elijah
Anderson’s 14 year study
of two Philadelphia
neighborhoods— one
populated by low-income
African Americans, the
other racially mixed but
increasingly middle- to
upper income and
white—is an example of
ethnographic research.

76. Research Methods: Secondary
Analysis of Existing Data
 Materials studied may include:
 books, diaries, poems, graffiti, movies,
television shows, advertisements,
greeting cards, music, art, and even
garbage.

77. Experiments
 Study the impact of certain variables on
subjects’ attitudes or behavior.
 Designed to create “real-life” situations.
 Used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect
relationship between variables.

78. Non Laboratory Settings
 Natural experiments may be conducted when an
unforeseen event occurs. What adaptation strategies
did these people use during the massive power outage
in the northeastern United States?

79. Effective Research Methods
 Which methods might
be most effective in
learning about the
problems of the
homeless, such as
these street people
warming themselves
on a warm grate in
Moscow, Russia?

80. Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
Strengths Weaknesses
Method
Experiments Control over Artificial
(Laboratory, research. Reliance on
Field, Natural) Ability to isolate volunteers or
experimental captive audiences.
factors. Ethical questions of
Little time and deception.
money required.
Replication
possible, except for
natural experiments.

81. Statistics: What We Do and
Don’t Know
Homelessness
Suicide in the U. S.
in the U.S.
Explanation The homeless often Census data places
avoid interviews with Latino/as in the
census takers. category of whites.
Critics assert the Other than African
actual number may Americans, people of
be 3 million and that color are listed as
the government nonwhite—other.
intentionally
undercounts them.

82. Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
Strengths Weaknesses
Method
Survey Potentially forced
Useful in describing
Research answers
features of a large
(Questionnaire, Respondent
population without
Interview, untruthfulness on
interviewing
Telephone emotional issues
everyone
Survey) Data that are not
Relatively large
always “hard facts”
samples possible
presented as such
Multivariate analysis
in statistical
possible
analyses

83. Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
Strengths Weaknesses
Method
Secondary Difficult to determine
Data readily
Analysis of accuracy of data.
available.
Existing Data Failure of data
inexpensive to
(Existing gathered by others to
collect.
Statistics, meet goals of current
Longitudinal and
Content research.
comparative
Analysis) Questions of privacy
studies possible.
when using diaries,
Replication
other personal
possible.
documents.

84. Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
Strengths Weaknesses
Method
Gain insider’s view.
Field Problems
Useful for studying
Research generalizing results.
behaviors in natural
(Participant Nonprecise data
settings.
Observation, measurements.
Longitudinal studies
Case Study, Inability to test
possible.
Ethnography, theories.
Documentation of
Unstructured Difficult to make
social problems of
Interview) comparisons.
groups possible.
Not representative.

85. Quantitative and Qualitative
Research
 Quantitative research focuses on data
that can be measured numerically.
 Qualitative research focuses on
interpretive description rather than
statistics to analyze underlying meanings
and patterns of social relationships.

86. Analyzing Content
 Examination of cultural artifacts or forms of
communication to draw conclusions about
social life.
 Cultural artifacts are products of individual
activity, social organizations, technology, and
cultural patterns.
 Among the materials studied are diaries, love
letters, poems, books, and graffiti, movies,
television, advertisements, and greeting cards.

87. Correlation Versus Causation
 A study might find that exposure to a suicide hot
line is associated with a change in attitude
toward suicide.
 If some of the students who were exposed to
the hot line also received psychiatric
counseling, the counseling may be the “hidden”
cause of the observed change in attitude.
 Correlations alone do not prove causation.

88. Hawthorne Effect
 A phenomenon in which changes in a
subject’s behavior are caused by the
researcher’s presence or by the subject’s
awareness of being studied.

89. Understanding Statistical
Data Presentations
1. Read the title.
2. Check the source and explanatory notes.
3. Read the headings for each column and
row.
4. Examine and compare the data.
5. Draw conclusions.

90. Statistics: What We Do and
Don’t Know
Homelessness in
Suicide in the U. S.
the U.S.
At least 250,000 At least 32,439
Research
people in the U.S. Americans committed
Finding
are homeless. suicide in 2004.
Possible Does that Are suicide rates
Problem underestimate the different for some
number of homeless categories of U.S.
people? citizens?

91. U.S. Suicides, by Sex and
Method Used, 1984 and 2004
Method Males Females
1984 2000 1984 2000
Total 22,689 25,566 6,597 6,873
Firearm 14,504 14,523 2,609 2,227
Poisoning 3,203 3,200 2,406 2,600
Suffocation 3,478 5,980 863 1,356

92. Grounded Theory
 Researchers who use grounded theory
collect and analyze data simultaneously.
 For example, after in-depth interviews
with 106 suicide attempters,
researchers in one study concluded
that half of the individuals who
attempted suicide wanted both to live
and to die at the time of their attempt.

93. Zellner Research
 Sociologist William Zellner wondered if
some automobile “accidents” were
actually suicides.
 By interviewing people who knew the
victims, Zellner hoped to obtain
information that would help determine if
the deaths were accidental or intentional.

94. Zellner Research
 When he recruited respondents, he
suggested their participation might reduce
the number of accidents in the future; but
didn’t mention that he suspected
autocide.
 From the data he collected, Zellner
concluded that at least 12% of the fatal
single-occupant crashes were suicides.

95. Quick Quiz

96. 1. The scientific method is based on the
assumption that knowledge is best
gained by:
A. direct observation
B. systematic observation
C. the support of good evidence
D. the possibility for public debate
E. all of these choices

97. Answer: E
 The scientific method is based on the
assumption that knowledge is best gained
by: direct observation, systematic
observation, the support of good
evidence and the possibility for public
debate.

98. 2. With _____ research, the goal is
scientific objectivity, and the focus is on
data that can be measured numerically.
A. inductive
B. deductive
C. quantitative
D. qualitative

99. Answer: C
 With quantitative research, the goal is
scientific objectivity, and the focus is on
data that can be measured numerically.

100. 3. _____ exists when two variable are
associated more frequently than could
be expected by chance.
A. Multiple causation
B. Regression relation
C. Correlation
D. Spurious relation

101. Answer: C
 Correlation exists when two variable
are associated more frequently than
could be expected by chance.

102. 4. Reliability is the extent to which a study
or research instrument:
A. measures the phenomenon it is
intended to measure.
B. yields consistent results.
C. approximates a true experiment.
D. relies on other variables to
preserve validity.

103. Answer: B
 Reliability is the extent to which a study
or research instrument yields
consistent results.