1. Nanotechnologyis the science that deals with the
processes that occur at molecular level and of nanolength scale size.
there are three step in the world of measurements
the first step is the meter, the second step is micron (world of
cells) and the last step is nanometer (smaller than the cell).
‘Pharmaceutical nanotechnology’embraces applications
of nanoscience to pharmacy as nanomaterials, and as
devices like drug delivery, diagnostic, imaging and
biosensor.
Uses of Nanotechnology:
1-Diagnosis and treatment of cancer
According to the US National Cancer
Institute (OTIR, 2006) “Nanotechnology
will
change the very foundations of cancer diagnosis,
treatment, and prevention”. We have
already seen how nanotechnology, an extremely wide
and versatile field, can affect many
of its composing disciplines in amazingly
innovative and unpredictable ways.
Q- what is cancer ?
Cancer is a disease caused by normal cells changing
them so that they grow in an uncontrolled way.

2. The uncontrolled growth can cause problems in one
or more of the following ways:
-spreading into normal tissues nearby.
-causing pressure on other body structure.
-spreading to other parts of the body through the
lymphatic system or blood stream.
The word cancerwas first applied to the disease by
Hippocrates (460–370 B.C.), the
Greek philosopher, who used the words carcinosand
carcinomato refer to non-ulcer
forming and ulcer forming tumors. The words refer to
a crab, probably due to the
external appearance of cancerous tumors, which have
branch-like projections that
resemble the claws of a crab.
Understanding Cancer
Cancer begins in cells, the building blocks that form
tissues. Tissues make up the organs of the body.
Normally, cells grow and divide to form new cells as
the body needs them. When cells grow old, they die,
and new cells take their place.
Sometimes, this orderly process goes wrong. New
cells form when the body does not need them, and
old cells do not die when they should. These extra
cells can form a mass of tissue called a growth or
tumor.

3. Tumors can be benign or malignant:
Benign tumors are not cancer:
Benign tumors are rarely life-threatening.
Generally, benign tumors can be removed, and they
usually do not grow back.
Cells from benign tumors do not invade the tissues
around them.
Cells from benign tumors do not spread to other parts
of the body.
Malignant tumors are cancer:
Malignant tumors are generally more serious than
benign tumors. They may be life-threatening.
Malignant tumors often can be removed, but
sometimes they grow back.
Cells from malignant tumors can invade and damage
nearby tissues and organs.
Cells from malignant tumors can spread (metastasize)
to other parts of the body. Cancer cells spread by
breaking away from the original (primary) tumor and
entering the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The
cells can invade other organs, forming new tumors
that damage these organs. The spread of cancer is
called metastasis.
Understanding Cancer
Cancer begins in cells, the building blocks that
form tissues. Tissues make up the organs of the body.

4. Normally, cells grow and divide to form new cells as the
body needs them. When cells grow old, they die, and
new cells take their place.
Sometimes, this orderly process goes wrong. New cells
form when the body does not need them, and old cells
do not die when they should. These extra cells can form a
mass of tissue called a growth ortumor.
Tumors can be benign or malignant:
Benign tumors are not cancer:
Benign tumors are rarely life-threatening.
Generally, benign tumors can be removed, and they
usually do not grow back.
Cells from benign tumors do not invade the tissues
around them.
Cells from benign tumors do not spread to other parts of
the body.
Malignant tumors are cancer:
Malignant tumors are generally more serious than
benign tumors. They may be life-threatening.

5. Malignant tumors often can be removed, but sometimes
they grow back.
Cells from malignant tumors can invade and damage
nearby tissues and organs.
Cells from malignant tumors can spread (metastasize) to
other parts of the body. Cancer cells spread by breaking
away from the original (primary) tumor and entering the
bloodstream or lymphatic system. The cells can invade
other organs, forming new tumors that damage these
organs. The spread of cancer is called metastasis.
A schematic illustration showing how nanoparticles or other cancer drugs
might be used to treat cancer.

6. Cancer
The small size of nanoparticles endows them with
properties that can be very useful in oncology,
particularly in imaging. Quantum dots (nanoparticles
with quantum confinement properties, such as size-
tunable light emission), when used in conjunction
with MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), can
produce exceptional images of tumor sites. These
nanoparticles are much brighter than organic dyes
and only need one light source for excitation. This
means that the use of fluorescent quantum dots could
produce a higher contrast image and at a lower cost
than today's organic dyes used as contrast media. The

7. downside, however, is that quantum dots are usually
made of quite toxic elements.
Another nanoproperty, high surface area to volume
ratio, allows many functional groups to be attached to
a nanoparticle, which can seek out and bind to certain
tumor cells. Additionally, the small size of
nanoparticles (10 to 100 nanometers), allows them to
preferentially accumulate at tumor sites (because
tumors lack an effective lymphatic drainage system).
A very exciting research question is how to make
these imaging nanoparticles do more things for
cancer. For instance, is it possible to manufacture
multifunctional nanoparticles that would detect,
image, and then proceed to treat a tumor? This
question is under vigorous investigation; the answer
to which could shape the future of cancer treatment>
promising new cancer treatment that may one day
replace radiation and chemotherapy is edging closer
to human trials. Kanzius RF therapy attaches
microscopic nanoparticles to cancer cells and then
"cooks" tumors inside the body with radio waves that
heat only the nanoparticles and the adjacent
(cancerous) cells.
Sensor test chips containing thousands of nanowires,
able to detect proteins and other biomarkers left
behind by cancer cells, could enable the detection and

8. diagnosis of cancer in the early stages from a few
drops of a patient's blood.
The basic point to use drug delivery is based upon
three facts: a) efficient encapsulation of the drugs, b)
successful delivery of said drugs to the targeted
region of the body, and c) successful release of that
drug there.
Researchers at Rice University under Prof. Jennifer
West, have demonstrated the use of 120 nm diameter
nanoshells coated with gold to kill cancer tumors in
mice. The nanoshells can be targeted to bond to
cancerous cells by conjugating antibodies or peptides
to the nanoshell surface. By irradiating the area of the
tumor with an infrared laser, which passes through
flesh without heating it, the gold is heated sufficiently
to cause death to the cancer cells.]
Nanoparticles of cadmium selenide (quantum dots)
glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. When
injected, they seep into cancer tumors. The surgeon
can see the glowing tumor, and use it as a guide for
more accurate tumor removal.
In photodynamic therapy, a particle is placed within
the body and is illuminated with light from the
outside. The light gets absorbed by the particle and if
the particle is metal, energy from the light will heat
the particle and surrounding tissue. Light may also be
used to produce high energy oxygen molecules which
will chemically react with and destroy most organic

9. molecules that are next to them (like tumors). This
therapy is appealing for many reasons. It does not
leave a “toxic trail” of reactive molecules throughout
the body (chemotherapy) because it is directed where
only the light is shined and the particles exist.
Photodynamic therapy has potential for a noninvasive
procedure for dealing with diseases, growth and
tumors.
Chemotherapy
is the delivery of drugs to treat disease, most
commonly cancer, and radiation therapy is the use of
high energy ionizing radiation to inhibit the division
and growth of cells (usually cancer cells). Both of
these therapy options are highly effective in treating
many types of cancers; however they can also affect
the normal healthy cells in the body, inducing
unwanted side effects. Most of the side effects from
chemotherapy and radiation subside when treatments
end, but there are some that can be long-term.
Dryness

10. Mucous membranes and glands, such as salivary
glands and tear glands, are sensitive to radiation and
some chemotherapy medications. Radiation therapy
to the head and neck region can induce xerostomia
(dry mouth) and xerophthalmia (dry eyes). Radiation
can also affect the sweat glands, causing them to stop
working and making temperature regulation difficult.
These conditions may be long-term and do affect the
patient’s overall quality of life.
Hair Loss
Hair follicles contain rapidly growing and dividing
cells making them susceptible to damage from both
chemotherapy and radiation therapy. This damage
causes hair loss, which is usually temporary.
Chemotherapy can cause hair loss over all of your
body, but radiation only causes hair loss to the
localized area where it was administered. Depending
on the medication and the level of radiation, the
damage to the hair follicle can be extensive enough to
induce permanent hair loss
.
Secondary Tumors
A secondary tumor is the formation of a new and
unrelated cancer as a result of the treatment of

11. another cancer. The secondary cancer usually arises
months, or more likely even years after the initial
treatment. Both chemotherapy and radiation are
known carcinogens, meaning they can cause cancer.
The risk of secondary tumors is usually so low that
the benefits of the treatment outweigh the risks, but
your doctor will continue to monitor your overall
health, even after treatments have ended
Hearing Loss
Chemotherapy medications, especially cis-platin, can
cause tinnitus, which is a ringing sensation in your
ears. There is no specific treatment for tinnitus, so it
can lead to hearing loss. Radiation therapy
administered to the brain can cause damage to the
inner ear, resulting in hearing loss as well.
Infertility
The cells of the reproductive system for both men
and women are rapidly dividing cells, making them
vulnerable to damage from both chemotherapy and
radiation therapy. For men, chemotherapy treatments

12. can cause permanent damage to the testes that
produce the sperm as well as the sperm. Radiation to
the area of the testes reduces the number and
functionality of the present sperm. High doses of
radiation can induce long-term effects. In both cases
you may want to consult your doctor about freezing
some of your sperm to ensure your ability to father
children in the future.
Chemotherapy can cause permanent damage to the
ovaries, which are responsible for producing
hormones essential to fertility. Radiation therapy to
the pelvis region can cause women to experience
signs of menopause, which may be long-term if the
radiation dose is high
Improved Diagnostics
Nanodevices can provide rapid and sensitive
detection of cancer-related molecules by enabling
scientists to detect molecular changes even when they
occur only in a small percentage of cells. This
would allow early detection of cancer – a critical step
in improving cancer treatment.

13. Nanotechnology
will allow the reduction of screening tools which
means that many tests can be run on a single device.
This makes cancer screening faster and more cost-
efficient.
Nanowires
Nanowires by nature have incredible
properties of selectivity and specificity.
Nanowires can be engineered to sense and pick
up molecular markers of cancer cells. By laying
down nanowires across a microfluidic channel
and allowing cells or particles to flow through it.
The wires can detect the presence of genes and
relay the information via electrical connections to
doctors and researchers. This technology can help

14. pinpoint the changes in the genetics of cancer.
Nanowires can be coated with a probe such as an
antibody that binds to a target protein.
Proteins that bind to the antibody will change the
nanowire’s electrical conductance and this can be
Particles flow through
microfluidic channel
measured by a detector.
2
Jim Heath, a nanotechnology researcher at California
Institute of Technology
has designed a nanowire detector. Each nanowire
bears a different antibody or oligonucleotide, a short
stretch of DNA that can be used to recognize specific
RNA sequences. They have begun testing the
chip on proteins secreted by cancer cells.
2
Carbon nanotubes are also being used to make DNA
biosensors. This uses self-assembled
carbon nanotubes and probe DNA oligonucleotides
immobilized by covalent binding to the nanotubes.
When hybridization between the probe and the target
DNA sequence occurs, the change is noted in the
voltammetirc peak of an indicator.
3
The DNA biosensors being developed are more
efficient and more
selective than current detection methods.

15. Cantilevers
Nanoscale cantilevers are built using
semiconductor lithographic techniques.
1
These
can be coated with molecules (like antibodies)
capable of binding to specific molecules that
only cancer cells secrete. When the target
molecule binds to the antibody on the cantilever,
a physical property of the cantilever changes and
the change can be detected. Researchers can
study the binding real time and the information
may also allow quantitative analysis. The nanometer-
sized cantilevers are extremely sensitive and can
detect single molecules of DNA or protein. Thus
providing fast and sensitive detection methods for
cancer related molecules.

16. • Types of Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery
•
• Systems
• Nanoparticles can consist of a number of
materials, including polymers, metals, and ceramics.
Based on their manufacturing methods and materials
used, these particles can adopt diverse shapes and
sizes with distinct properties. Many types of
nanoparticles are under various stages of
development as drug delivery systems, including
liposomes and other lipid-based carriers (such as lipid
emulsions and lipid-drug complexes), polymer-drug
conjugates, polymer microspheres, micelles, and
various ligand-targeted products (such as
immunoconjugates0
• Liposomes and Other Lipid-based Nanoparticles
• Liposomes are self-assembling, spherical, closed
colloidal structures composed of
• lipid bilayers that surround a central aqueous
space. Liposomes are the most studied formulation of
nanoparticle for drug delivery (). Several types of
anticancer drugs have been developed as lipid-based
systems by using a variety of preparation methods.
Liposomal formulations have shown an ability to

17. improve the pharmacokinetics and
pharmacodynamics of associated drugs.1 To date,
liposome-based formulations of several anticancer
agents (Stealth liposomal doxorubicin [Doxil],
liposomal doxorubicin [Myocet], and liposomal
daunorubicin [DaunoXome]) have been approved for
the treatment of metastatic breast cancer and Kaposi's
sarcoma.2
• First generation liposomes have an unmodified
phospholipid surface that can attract plasma proteins,
which in turn trigger recognition and uptake of the
liposomes by the mononuclear phagocytic system
(MPS), which is synonymous with the
reticuloendothelial system,1 resulting in their rapid
clearance from the circulation. This property impedes
the distribution of liposomes and their associated
drug to solid tumors or other non-MPS sites of drug
action. Second generation liposomal drugs are being
developed in an effort to evade MPS recognition and
subsequent clearance. Surface-modified liposomes
(Stealth) have hydrophilic carbohydrates or
polymers, which usually are lipid derivatives of
polyethylene glycol (PEG) grafted to the liposome
surfaceWhile this surface modification has solved the
problem of fast clearance from the circulation,
yielding liposomes with a significantly increased
half-life in the blood, the challenge remains to attain

18. preferential accumulation of liposomes in tumor
tissues. One strategy to achieve tumor-specific
targeting is to conjugate a targeting moiety on the
outer surface of the lipid bilayer of the liposome that
selectively delivers drug to the desired site of action.
For example, an immunoliposome has antibodies or
antibody fragments conjugated on its outer surface,
usually at the terminus of PEG. Several studies have
documented improved therapeutic efficacy of
immunoliposomes targeted to internalizing antigens
or receptors compared with that of nontargeted
liposomes. An in vitro study of a liposome
formulation of doxorubicin (DOX) targeted to the
internalizing antigen CD44 on B16F10 melanoma
cells showed enhanced intracellular drug uptake from
the targeted liposomes when compared with the free
form of DOX. The enhanced uptake was correlated
with enhanced cell killing efficacy. A liposomal
formulation of cisplatin that lacked efficacy
demonstrated encouraging therapeutic results when
delivered in an immunoliposome targeted to an
internalizing antigen. Recently, promising results
were reported from a Phase I clinical study that
evaluated the effect of MCC-465, a PEGylated
liposomal formulation containing DOX targeted with
an F(ab')2 fragment of a human mAb named GAH, in
patients with metastatic stomach cancer

19. • Targeted Delivery of Therapeutic Nanoparticles
• Passive Targeting
• Passive targeting takes advantage of the inherent
size of nanoparticles and the unique properties of
tumor vasculature, such as the enhanced permeability
and retention (EPR) effect and the tumor
microenvironment.79,80,81–82 This approach can
effectively enhance drug bioavailability and efficacy.
• EPR Effect. Angiogenesis is crucial to tumor
progression. Angiogenic blood vessels in tumor
tissues, unlike those in normal tissues, have gaps as
large as 600 to 800 nm between adjacent endothelial
cells.18,83 This defective vascular architecture
coupled with poor lymphatic drainage induces the
EPR effect,83,84,85–86 which allows nanoparticles
to extravasate through these gaps into extravascular
spaces and accumulate inside tumor tissues87 (Figure
1). Dramatic increases in tumor drug accumulation,

20. usually of 10-fold or greater, can be achieved when a
drug is delivered by a nanoparticle rather than as a
free drug.88 However, the localization of
nanoparticles within the tumor is not homogeneous.
The factors that result in high concentrations of
nanoparticles in one part of the tumor tissue but not
in other parts are not well understood yet.89 In
general, the accumulation of nanoparticles in tumors
depends on factors including the size, surface
characteristics, and circulation half-life of the
nanoparticle and the degree of angiogenesis of the
tumor. Usually, less nanoparticle accumulation is
seen in preangiogenic or necrotic tumors.18
• Tumor Microenvironment. Hyperproliferative
cancer cells have profound effects on their
surrounding microenvironment. Tumors must adapt
to use glycolysis (hypoxic metabolism) to obtain
extra energy, resulting in an acidic
microenvironment.81 In addition, cancer cells
overexpress and release some enzymes that are
crucial to tumor migration, invasion, and metastasis,
including matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs).82
Tumor-activated prodrug therapy is an example of
passive targeting that takes advantage of this
characteristic of the tumor-associated
microenvironment. A nanoparticle conjugating an
albumin-bound form of DOX with an MMP-2–

21. specific peptide sequence (Gly-Pro-Leu-Gly-Ile-Ala-
Gly-Gln) was efficiently and specifically cleaved by
MMP-2.90 When certain pH-sensitive molecules are
incorporated into liposomes, drugs can be specifically
released from the complexes by a change in pH.91
The pH-sensitive liposomes are stable at physiologic
conditions (pH 7.2), but degraded in tumor-
associated acidic areas. Likewise, thermolabile
liposomes are expected to be activated by the local
hyperthermic microenvironment.92
• Active Targeting
• The polymeric nanoparticles that have been
tested clinically so far have mostly lacked a targeting
moiety and instead rely mainly on the EPR effect of
tumors, the tumor microenvironment, and tumor
angiogenesis to promote some tumor-selective
delivery of nanoparticles to tumor tissues. However,
these drug delivery systems using a binary structure
conjugate inevitably have intrinsic limitations to the
degree of targeting specificity they can achieve. In
the case of the EPR effect, while poor lymphatic
drainage on the one hand helps the extravasated
drugs to be enriched in the tumor interstitium, on the
other hand, it induces drug outflow from the cells as a
result of higher osmotic pressure in the interstitium,
which eventually leads to drug redistribution in some
portions of the cancer tissue.93

22. • An alternative strategy to overcome these
limitations is to conjugate a targeting ligand or an
antibody to nanoparticles. By incorporating a
targeting molecule that specifically binds an antigen
or receptor that is either uniquely expressed or
overexpressed on the tumor cell surface, the ligand-
targeted approach is expected to selectively deliver
drugs to tumor tissues with greater efficiency (Figure
2). Such targeted nanoparticles may constitute the
next generation of polymeric nanoparticle drug
delivery systems. Indeed, several targeted polymeric
nanoparticles are currently undergoing preclinical
studies.65,77,94,95–96 One of these, HPMA
copolymer-DOX-galactosamine (PK2, FCE28069),
has progressed to a clinical trial. In this nanoparticle,
galactosamine moieties bind to the asialoglycoprotein
receptor on hepatocytes.65,76 In a Phase I/II study,
this targeted nanoparticle showed 12- to 50-fold
greater accumulation than the free DOX in
hepatocellular carcinoma tissue. Antitumor activity
was observed in patients with primary hepatocellular
carcinoma in this study.65,76 These promising early
clinical results suggest the potential of targeted
polymeric nanoparticles as anticancer drug delivery
systems. Lessons have also been learned from many
of the early clinical studies. For example, the failure
of HPMA conjugates of paclitaxel and camptothecin
in Phase I clinical trials was reported. Such negative

23. outcomes underline the importance of polymer-drug
design
• Choice of Target Receptor. Selection of the
appropriate receptor or antigen on cancer cells is
crucial for the optimal design of targeted
nanoparticles. The ideal targets are those that are
abundantly and uniquely expressed on tumor cells,
but have negligible or low expression on normal
cells. The targeted antigen or receptor should also
have a high density on the surface of the target tumor
cells. Whether the targeted nanoconjugate can be
internalized after binding to the target cell is another
important criterion in the selection of proper targeting
ligands. In the case of an antibody or other ligand that
cannot trigger the internalization process, the drug
can enter cells through simple diffusion or other
transport system after being released from the
targeted conjugate at or near the cell surface.
However, drug released outside the cell may disperse
or redistribute to the surrounding normal tissues
rather than exclusively to the cancer cells. In vitro
and in vivo comparisons using internalizing or
noninternalizing ligands have shown that the
intracellular concentration of drug is much higher
when the drug is released from nanoparticles in the
cytoplasm after internalization.43,98

24. • Choice of Targeting Ligand. One of the greatest
challenges to the design of nanoparticles that can
selectively and successfully transport drug to
cancerous tissues is the choice of targeting agent(s).
This strategy also relies on the ability of the targeting
agent or ligand to bind the tumor cell surface in an
appropriate manner to trigger receptor-mediated
endocytosis. The therapeutic agent will thereby be
delivered to the interior of the cancer cell.85 A
variety of tumor-targeting ligands, such as antibodies,
growth factors, or cytokines, have been used to
facilitate the uptake of carriers into target
cells.90,92,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106–107
• Ligands targeting cell-surface receptors can be
natural materials like folate and growth factors,
which have the advantages of lower molecular weight
and lower immunogenicity than antibodies. However,
some ligands, such as folate that is supplied by food,
show naturally high concentrations in the human
body and may compete with the nanoparticle-
conjugated ligand for binding to the receptor,
effectively reducing the intracellular concentration of
delivered drug. Recent advances in molecular biology
and genetic engineering allow modified antibodies to
be used as targeting moieties in an active-targeting
approach. MAbs or antibody fragments (such as
antigen-binding fragments or single-chain variable
fragments) are the most frequently used ligands for

25. targeted therapies. Whole mAbs have 2 binding
domains showing high binding avidity. The Fc
domain of the mAb can induce complement-mediated
cytotoxicity and antibody-dependent, cell-mediated
cytotoxicity, leading to additional cell-killing effect.
On the other hand, the Fc domain also initiates an
immune response and can be rapidly eliminated in
the circulation, resulting in decreased accumulation
of targeted nanoparticles into cancer cells.13
Compared with whole mAbs, the use of antibody
fragments as a targeting moiety can reduce
immunogenicity and improve the pharmacokinetic
profiles of nanoparticles.1 For example, liposomes
coupled with mAb fragments instead of whole
antibodies showed decreased clearance rates and
increased circulation half-lives, allowing the
liposomes sufficient time to be distributed and bind
to the targeted cells.1,39 This strategy improved the
therapeutic efficacy of immunoliposomal DOX
targeted against CD19 on human B lymphoma cells
in animal models