2. LEVEL OF LANGUAGE
PROFICIENCY
• High level of proficiency related to an increase
of both cognitive and metacognitive strategies
O’Malley,1985
• Intermediate high school learners use more
metacognitive strategies than the beginners.
• The beginners use more translation energy
while the intermediate use more
contextualization.
3. Chen,1990
• Relationship between communication
strategies and the proficiency level found that
low-proficiency level students employ more
communication strategies than highproficiency ones.
• High-proficiency learners use more linguisticbased strategies such as using synonyms more
frequently.
4. Park,1997
• Examined the relationship between the use of
LLS and the proficiency level of 332 Korean
students learning English as second language.
• Study showed a linear correlation between LLS
use and language proficiency.
• All six categories of LLS were significantly
correlated with the The Test of English as a
Foreign Language (TOFEL) scores used to gauge
their proficiency level.
5. MOTIVATION
Oxford and Nykos,1989
• Study the effect of a number of factor on
strategy use, include motivation, found
motivation as the most important factor
affecting LLS.
McIntyre and Noels, 1996
• Examine the relationship between LLS and
motivational level among undergraduate
foreign language learners.
6. • Substantially motivated learners tend to adopt
more learning strategies and use them more
frequently than less motivated learners.
Chang and Huang, 1996
• Study the relationship between the
instrumental and integrative motivation on the
LLS use of 48 Taiwanese graduate and
undergraduate students at a public university in
the US.
7. • Result shows that the total number of learning
strategies were associated with motivational
level.
• Social strategies were the less frequently used
strategies and the only one strategy associated
with extrinsic motivation.
8. LEARNING STYLE
Ehrman and Oxford, 1990; Rossi-Lee, 1995
• The fact that an individual learning style
preferences influence the type of LLS they use.
Ehrman and Oxford, 1990
• Show a strong preference for social strategies,
while introverts use metacognitive strategies
more frequently.
9. Rossi-Lee, 1995
• Learners who prefer to be in a study group are
shown to use social and interactive strategies
such as asking peers and request for
clarification.
10. GENDER
Goh and Kwah, 1997; Green and Oxford,1995
• Female students use compensation strategies and
affective strategies more frequently than male
students.
Hong Nam ad Leavell, 2006
• Investigate the learning style used by 55 students
learning English as second language (ESL) at
different country: Brazil, China, German,
Indonesia, Japan. Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan,
Thailand and Togo.
11. • Result shows that students prefer to use
metacognitive strategies, whereas they sculpted
the least use of affective and memory strategies in
overall strategies.
• Mean differences showed that females engaged in
strategy use more frequently than males.
• Female students prefer to use social and
metacognitive strategies than memory strategies
while males favored to use metacognitive and
compensation strategies the most while affective
strategies the least.
12. AGE
•
•
•
•
Chesterfield and Chesterfield, 1985
Children develop strategies step-by-step
At first, they develop receptive strategies such
as repetition and memorization
Then, they develop strategies that allow them
to communicate.
Finally, they develop strategies for
identification and monitoring for grammatical
error.
13. O’Malley, 1985
• It is reported that most secondary school
students use cognitive strategies than other
strategies
• Some advanced learners favored to use
metacognitive strategies.
