2. The first and only work in which C a r l
G. Jung, the world-famous Swiss psy-
chologist, explains to the general reader
his greatest contribution to our knowl-
edge of the human mind: the theory of
the importance of symbolism—particu-
larly as revealed in dreams.
Man and his
Symbols
Carl G.Jung
But for a dream, this book would never
have been written. That dream — de-
scribed by John Freeman in the Fore-
word—convinced Jung that he could,
indeed should, explain his ideas to those
who have no special knowledge of psy-
chology. At the age of eighty-three,
Jung worked out the complete plan for
this book, including the sections that
he wished his four closest associates to
write. He devoted the closing months
of his life to editing the work and writ-
ing his own key section, which he com-
pleted only ten days before his death.
Throughout the book, Jung empha-
sizes that man can achieve wholeness
only through a knowledge and accept-
ance of the unconscious—a knowledge
acquired through dreams and their
symbols. Every dream is a direct, per-
sonal, and meaningful communication
to the dreamer—a communication that
uses the symbols common to all man-
kind but uses them always in an entire-
ly individual way, which can be inter-
preted only by an entirely individual
key.
(Continued on back flap)
4. Man and his Symbols
Carl G.Jung
and M.-L. von Franz, Joseph L. Henderson, Jolande J a c o b i , Aniela Jaffe'
Anchor Press
Doubleday
New York London Toronto Sydney Auckland
7. Introduction: John Freeman
T h e origins of this book a r e sufficiently u n u s u a l to be of interest, a n d
they b e a r a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n to its c o n t e n t s a n d w h a t it sets o u t to d o . So
let me tell y o u j u s t h o w it c a m e to b e w r i t t e n .
O n e d a y in t h e s p r i n g of 1959 t h e British B r o a d c a s t i n g C o r p o r a t i o n
invited m e to i n t e r v i e w for British television D r . C a r l G u s t a v J u n g .
T h e interview w a s to b e d o n e " i n d e p t h . " I k n e w little e n o u g h a t t h a t
time a b o u t J u n g a n d his w o r k , a n d I a t o n c e w e n t to m a k e his a c q u a i n t -
ance at his beautiful lakeside h o m e n e a r Z u r i c h . T h a t was t h e b e g i n n i n g
of a friendship t h a t m e a n t a g r e a t d e a l to m e a n d , I h o p e , g a v e some
pleasure to J u n g in t h e last years of his life. T h e television i n t e r v i e w
has no further p l a c e in this story, e x c e p t t h a t it was a c c o u n t e d successful
and t h a t this b o o k is by a n o d d c o m b i n a t i o n of c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n e n d -
product of t h a t success.
O n e m a n w h o saw J u n g o n t h e screen was W o l f g a n g Foges, m a n a g -
ing director of A l d u s Books. Foges h a d b e e n keenly interested in t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of m o d e r n psychology since his c h i l d h o o d , w h e n h e lived
near the F r e u d s in V i e n n a . A n d as h e w a t c h e d J u n g t a l k i n g a b o u t his
life a n d w o r k a n d ideas, Foges s u d d e n l y reflected w h a t a pity it was
that, while the g e n e r a l o u t l i n e of F r e u d ' s work was well k n o w n to
educated r e a d e r s all over t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d , J u n g h a d n e v e r m a n a g e d
to break t h r o u g h to t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c a n d was a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d too
difficult for p o p u l a r r e a d i n g .
Foges, in fact, is the c r e a t o r of Man and his Symbols. H a v i n g sensed
from t h e T V screen t h a t a w a r m p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n existed b e t w e e n
J u n g a n d myself, he asked m e w h e t h e r I w o u l d j o i n h i m in t r y i n g to
persuade J u n g to set o u t s o m e of his m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n d basic ideas in
language a n d a t a l e n g t h t h a t w o u l d b e intelligible a n d i n t e r e s t i n g to
non-specialist a d u l t r e a d e r s . I j u m p e d a t t h e i d e a a n d set off o n c e m o r e
to Z u r i c h , d e t e r m i n e d t h a t I c o u l d c o n v i n c e J u n g of the v a l u e a n d
i m p o r t a n c e of s u c h a work. J u n g listened to m e in his g a r d e n for two
hours a l m o s t w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n — a n d t h e n said n o . H e said it in t h e
nicest possible w a y , b u t w i t h g r e a t firmness; h e h a d n e v e r in the past
tried to p o p u l a r i z e his w o r k , a n d h e w a s n ' t sure t h a t h e c o u l d success-
fully d o so n o w ; a n y w a y , h e was old a n d r a t h e r tired a n d n o t keen to
take on such a l o n g c o m m i t m e n t a b o u t w h i c h h e h a d so m a n y d o u b t s .
J u n g ' s friends will all a g r e e w i t h m e t h a t h e was a m a n of most
positive decision. H e w o u l d w e i g h u p a p r o b l e m w i t h c a r e a n d w i t h o u t
9
8. h u r r y ; b u t w h e n h e did give his a n s w e r , it was usually final. I r e t u r n e d
to L o n d o n g r e a t l y d i s a p p o i n t e d , b u t c o n v i n c e d t h a t J u n g ' s refusal was
the e n d of t h e m a t t e r . So it m i g h t h a v e b e e n , b u t for two i n t e r v e n i n g
factors t h a t I h a d not foreseen.
O n e was the p e r t i n a c i t y of Foges, w h o insisted o n m a k i n g o n e m o r e
a p p r o a c h to J u n g before a c c e p t i n g defeat. T h e o t h e r was a n e v e n t t h a t ,
as I look back on it, still astonishes m e .
T h e television p r o g r a m was, as I h a v e said, a c c o u n t e d successful. It
b r o u g h t J u n g a g r e a t m a n y letters from all sorts of p e o p l e , m a n y of
t h e m o r d i n a r y folk w i t h no m e d i c a l or psychological t r a i n i n g , w h o h a d
b e e n c a p t i v a t e d by the c o m m a n d i n g p r e s e n c e , the h u m o r , a n d the
modest c h a r m of this very g r e a t m a n , a n d w h o h a d g l i m p s e d in his
view of life a n d h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y s o m e t h i n g t h a t could b e helpful to
t h e m . A n d J u n g was very pleased, n o t simply at g e t t i n g letters (his
mail was e n o r m o u s a t all times) b u t a t g e t t i n g t h e m from p e o p l e w h o
would normally have no contact with him.
I t was a t this m o m e n t t h a t he d r e a m e d a d r e a m of the greatest
i m p o r t a n c e to h i m . ( A n d as you r e a d this book, you will u n d e r s t a n d
j u s t h o w i m p o r t a n t t h a t c a n be.) H e d r e a m e d t h a t , instead of sitting
in his s t u d y a n d t a l k i n g to the g r e a t d o c t o r s a n d psychiatrists w h o used
to call on h i m from all over the w o r l d , h e was s t a n d i n g in a p u b l i c
p l a c e a n d a d d r e s s i n g a m u l t i t u d e of p e o p l e w h o w e r e listening to h i m
with r a p t a t t e n t i o n a n d understanding what he said. . . .
W h e n , a week or t w o later, Foges r e n e w e d his request t h a t J u n g
should u n d e r t a k e a n e w book d e s i g n e d , n o t for the clinic or the philo-
s o p h e r ' s s t u d y , b u t for the p e o p l e in the m a r k e t p l a c e , J u n g allowed
himself to be p e r s u a d e d . H e laid d o w n two c o n d i t i o n s . First, t h a t the
book s h o u l d n o t be a s i n g l e - h a n d e d book, b u t the collective effort of
himself a n d a g r o u p of his closest followers, t h r o u g h w h o m he h a d
a t t e m p t e d to p e r p e t u a t e his m e t h o d s a n d his t e a c h i n g . S e c o n d l y , t h a t I
s h o u l d b e e n t r u s t e d w i t h the task of c o - o r d i n a t i n g the work a n d resolv-
ing a n y p r o b l e m s t h a t m i g h t arise b e t w e e n the a u t h o r s a n d the
publishers.
Lest it s h o u l d seem t h a t this i n t r o d u c t i o n transgresses the b o u n d s of
r e a s o n a b l e m o d e s t y , let m e say at o n c e t h a t I was gratified by this
second c o n d i t i o n — b u t w i t h i n m e a s u r e . F o r it very soon c a m e to m y
k n o w l e d g e t h a t J u n g ' s reason for selecting m e was essentially t h a t he
I ()
9. regarded m e as b e i n g of r e a s o n a b l e , b u t n o t e x c e p t i o n a l , intelligence
and w i t h o u t t h e slightest serious k n o w l e d g e of psychology. T h u s I was
to J u n g t h e " a v e r a g e r e a d e r " of this b o o k ; w h a t I could u n d e r s t a n d
would be intelligible to all w h o w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t e d ; w h a t I boggled
at m i g h t possibly b e too difficult or o b s c u r e for s o m e . N o t u n d u l y flat-
tered by this e s t i m a t e of m y role, I h a v e n o n e t h e less s c r u p u l o u s l y in-
sisted (sometimes, I fear, to the e x a s p e r a t i o n of t h e a u t h o r s ) o n h a v i n g
every p a r a g r a p h w r i t t e n a n d , if necessary, r e w r i t t e n to a d e g r e e of
clarity a n d directness t h a t e n a b l e s m e to say w i t h confidence t h a t this
book in its e n t i r e t y is d e s i g n e d for a n d a d d r e s s e d to the g e n e r a l r e a d e r ,
and t h a t t h e c o m p l e x subjects it deals w i t h a r e t r e a t e d w i t h a r a r e a n d
e n c o u r a g i n g simplicity.
After m u c h discussion, t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e subject of this book was
agreed to b e M a n a n d his S y m b o l s ; a n d J u n g himself selected as his
collaborators in t h e w o r k D r . M a r i e - L o u i s e v o n F r a n z of Z u r i c h , per-
haps his closest professional c o n f i d a n t e a n d f r i e n d ; D r . J o s e p h L. H e n -
derson of S a n F r a n c i s c o , o n e of the most p r o m i n e n t a n d t r u s t e d of
A m e r i c a n J u n g i a n s ; M r s . A n i e l a Jaffe of Z u r i c h , w h o , in a d d i t i o n to
being a n e x p e r i e n c e d a n a l y s t , was J u n g ' s confidential p r i v a t e secretary
and his b i o g r a p h e r ; a n d D r . J o l a n d e J a c o b i , w h o after J u n g himself
is the most e x p e r i e n c e d a u t h o r a m o n g J u n g ' s Z u r i c h circle. T h e s e four
people w e r e chosen p a r t l y b e c a u s e of t h e i r skill a n d e x p e r i e n c e in the
p a r t i c u l a r subjects a l l o c a t e d to t h e m a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e all of t h e m
were c o m p l e t e l y trusted b y J u n g to w o r k unselfishly to his instructions
as m e m b e r s of a t e a m . J u n g ' s p e r s o n a l responsibility was to p l a n the
structure of t h e w h o l e book, to supervise a n d d i r e c t the w o r k of his
collaborators, a n d himself to w r i t e t h e k e y n o t e c h a p t e r , " A p p r o a c h i n g
the U n c o n s c i o u s . "
T h e last y e a r of his life was d e v o t e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y to this book, a n d
when he d i e d in J u n e 1961, his o w n section was c o m p l e t e (he finished
it, in fact, o n l y s o m e 10 days before his final illness) a n d his colleagues'
chapters h a d all b e e n a p p r o v e d by h i m in draft. After his d e a t h , D r .
von F r a n z a s s u m e d over-all responsibility for the c o m p l e t i o n of the
book in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h J u n g ' s express i n s t r u c t i o n s . T h e subject m a t t e r
of Man and his Symbols a n d its o u t l i n e w e r e therefore laid d o w n —
a n d in d e t a i l — b y J u n g . T h e c h a p t e r t h a t b e a r s his n a m e is his work
a n d ( a p a r t from s o m e fairly extensive e d i t i n g to i m p r o v e its intelligi-
11
10. bility to t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r ) n o b o d y else's. I t was w r i t t e n , i n c i d e n t a l l y ,
in English. T h e r e m a i n i n g c h a p t e r s w e r e w r i t t e n b y t h e v a r i o u s a u t h o r s
to J u n g ' s d i r e c t i o n a n d u n d e r his supervision. T h e final e d i t i n g of the
c o m p l e t e w o r k after J u n g ' s d e a t h has b e e n d o n e by D r . von F r a n z w i t h
a p a t i e n c e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d good h u m o r t h a t leave the p u b l i s h e r s
a n d myself g r e a t l y in h e r d e b t .
Finally as to t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e book itself:
J u n g ' s t h i n k i n g has colored t h e w o r l d of m o d e r n psychology m o r e
t h a n m a n y of those w i t h casual k n o w l e d g e realize. S u c h familiar t e r m s ,
for i n s t a n c e , as " e x t r a v e r t , " " i n t r o v e r t , " a n d " a r c h e t y p e " a r e all
J u n g i a n c o n c e p t s — b o r r o w e d a n d s o m e t i m e s misused b y o t h e r s . B u t his
o v e r w h e l m i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n to psychological u n d e r s t a n d i n g is his con-
c e p t of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s — n o t (like t h e u n c o n s c i o u s of F r e u d ) m e r e l y
a sort of glory-hole of repressed desires, b u t a w o r l d t h a t is j u s t as m u c h
a vital a n d real p a r t of the life of a n i n d i v i d u a l as the conscious,
" c o g i t a t i n g " w o r l d of the ego, a n d infinitely w i d e r a n d richer. T h e
l a n g u a g e a n d t h e " p e o p l e " of the u n c o n s c i o u s a r e symbols, a n d the
m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s d r e a m s .
T h u s a n e x a m i n a t i o n of M a n a n d his S y m b o l s is in effect a n e x a m i -
n a t i o n of m a n ' s r e l a t i o n to his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s . A n d since in J u n g ' s
view the u n c o n s c i o u s is the g r e a t g u i d e , friend, a n d adviser of t h e
conscious, this book is r e l a t e d in the most direct t e r m s to the s t u d y of
h u m a n beings a n d their s p i r i t u a l p r o b l e m s . W e k n o w t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
a n d c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h it (a t w o - w a y service) p r i n c i p a l l y by d r e a m s ;
a n d all t h r o u g h this book ( a b o v e all in J u n g ' s o w n c h a p t e r ) you will
find a q u i t e r e m a r k a b l e e m p h a s i s p l a c e d o n the i m p o r t a n c e of d r e a m -
ing in the life of the i n d i v i d u a l .
I t w o u l d b e a n i m p e r t i n e n c e o n m y p a r t to a t t e m p t to i n t e r p r e t
J u n g ' s w o r k to r e a d e r s , m a n y of w h o m will surely b e far b e t t e r q u a l i -
fied to u n d e r s t a n d it t h a n I a m . M y role, r e m e m b e r , was m e r e l y to
serve as a sort of "intelligibility filter" a n d by n o m e a n s as a n inter-
p r e t e r . Nevertheless, I v e n t u r e to offer two g e n e r a l points t h a t seem
i m p o r t a n t to m e as a l a y m a n a n d t h a t m a y possibly b e helpful to o t h e r
n o n - e x p e r t s . T h e first is a b o u t d r e a m s . T o J u n g i a n s the d r e a m is n o t a
kind of s t a n d a r d i z e d c r y p t o g r a m t h a t c a n be d e c o d e d by a glossary
of s y m b o l m e a n i n g s . I t is a n i n t e g r a l , i m p o r t a n t , a n d p e r s o n a l expres-
sion of the i n d i v i d u a l u n c o n s c i o u s . It is j u s t as " r e a l " as a n y o t h e r
I 2
11. p h e n o m e n o n a t t a c h i n g to the i n d i v i d u a l . The, d r e a m e r ' s i n d i v i d u a l
unconscious is c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h t h e d r e a m e r a l o n e a n d is selecting
symbols for its p u r p o s e t h a t h a v e m e a n i n g to the d r e a m e r a n d to
n o b o d y else. T h u s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d r e a m s , w h e t h e r b y the analyst
or by the d r e a m e r himself, is for the J u n g i a n psychologist a n entirely
personal a n d i n d i v i d u a l business ( a n d s o m e t i m e s a n e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d
very l e n g t h y o n e as well) t h a t c a n by n o m e a n s b e u n d e r t a k e n by
rule of t h u m b .
T h e converse of this is t h a t the c o m m u n i c a t i o n s of the unconscious
are of the highest i m p o r t a n c e to the d r e a m e r — n a t u r a l l y so, since the
unconscious is a t least half of his total b e i n g — a n d frequently offer h i m
advice or g u i d a n c e t h a t c o u l d be o b t a i n e d from n o o t h e r source. T h u s ,
when I d e s c r i b e d J u n g ' s d r e a m a b o u t a d d r e s s i n g the m u l t i t u d e , I was
not d e s c r i b i n g a piece of m a g i c or suggesting t h a t J u n g d a b b l e d in
fortune telling. I was r e c o u n t i n g in the s i m p l e t e r m s of daily e x p e r i e n c e
how J u n g was " a d v i s e d " by his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s to reconsider a n
i n a d e q u a t e j u d g m e n t he h a d m a d e w i t h t h e conscious p a r t of his m i n d .
N o w it follows from this t h a t t h e d r e a m i n g of d r e a m s is not a m a t t e r
that the well-adjusted J u n g i a n c a n r e g a r d as simply a m a t t e r of
chance. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , the ability to establish c o m m u n i c a t i o n s with
the u n c o n s c i o u s is a p a r t of t h e w h o l e m a n , a n d J u n g i a n s " t e a c h "
themselves (I c a n t h i n k of n o b e t t e r t e r m ) to be r e c e p t i v e to d r e a m s .
W h e n , therefore, J u n g himself was faced w i t h the critical decision
1
w h e t h e r or not to w r i t e this book, he was a b l e to d r a w on the resources
of both his conscious a n d his u n c o n s c i o u s in m a k i n g u p his m i n d . A n d
all t h r o u g h this book you will find the d r e a m t r e a t e d as a direct, per-
sonal, a n d m e a n i n g f u l c o m m u n i c a t i o n to the d r e a m e r —a c o m m u n i c a -
tion t h a t uses the symbols c o m m o n to ajl m a n k i n d , b u t t h a t uses t h e m
on every occasion in a n entirely i n d i v i d u a l w a y t h a t c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d
only by a n entirely i n d i v i d u a l " k e y . "
T h e second p o i n t I wish to m a k e is a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of a r g u m e n t a t i v e m e t h o d t h a t is c o m m o n to all the writers of this book
p e r h a p s to all J u n g i a n s . T h o s e w h o h a v e limited themselves to living
entirely in the w o r l d of the conscious a n d w h o reject c o m m u n i c a t i o n
with the u n c o n s c i o u s b i n d themselves by the laws of conscious, formal
life. W i t h t h e infallible ( b u t often meaningless) logic of t h e a l g e b r a i c
e q u a t i o n , they a r g u e from a s s u m e d premises to i n c o n t e s t a b l y d e d u c e d
'3
12. conclusions. J u n g a n d his colleagues seem to m e ( w h e t h e r they k n o w it
or not) to reject the l i m i t a t i o n s of this m e t h o d of a r g u m e n t . It is not
t h a t t h e y i g n o r e logic, b u t t h e y a p p e a r all t h e t i m e to be a r g u i n g to the
u n c o n s c i o u s as well as to t h e conscious. T h e i r dialectical m e t h o d is itself
symbolic a n d often devious. T h e y c o n v i n c e not by m e a n s of t h e n a r -
rowly focused spotlight of the syllogism, b u t by skirting, by r e p e t i t i o n ,
b y p r e s e n t i n g a r e c u r r i n g view of the s a m e subject seen e a c h t i m e from
a slightly different a n g l e — until s u d d e n l y the r e a d e r w h o has never
b e e n a w a r e of a single, conclusive m o m e n t of p r o o f finds t h a t he has
u n k n o w i n g l y e m b r a c e d a n d t a k e n i n t o himself some w i d e r t r u t h .
J u n g ' s a r g u m e n t s ( a n d those of his colleagues) spiral u p w a r d over
his subject like a b i r d circling a tree. At first, n e a r the g r o u n d , it sees
only a confusion of leaves a n d b r a n c h e s . G r a d u a l l y , as it circles h i g h e r
a n d h i g h e r , the r e c u r r i n g aspects of t h e tree form a wholeness a n d
r e l a t e to their s u r r o u n d i n g s . S o m e r e a d e r s m a y find this " s p i r a l i n g "
m e t h o d of a r g u m e n t o b s c u r e or even confusing for a few p a g e s — b u t
not, I t h i n k , for long. I t is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of J u n g ' s m e t h o d , a n d very
soon the r e a d e r will find it c a r r y i n g h i m w i t h it o n a persuasive a n d
profoundly absorbing j o u r n e y .
T h e different sections of this book speak for themselves a n d r e q u i r e
little i n t r o d u c t i o n from m e . J u n g ' s o w n c h a p t e r i n t r o d u c e s t h e r e a d e r
to the u n c o n s c i o u s , to t h e a r c h e t y p e s a n d symbols t h a t form its l a n g u -
age a n d to t h e d r e a m s by w h i c h it c o m m u n i c a t e s . D r . H e n d e r s o n in
the following c h a p t e r illustrates the a p p e a r a n c e of several a r c h e t y p a l
p a t t e r n s in a n c i e n t m y t h o l o g y , folk l e g e n d , a n d p r i m i t i v e r i t u a l . D r .
von F r a n z , in the c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d " T h e Process of I n d i v i d u a t i o n , "
describes the process by w h i c h t h e conscious a n d t h e unconscious
w i t h i n a n i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n to k n o w , respect, a n d a c c o m m o d a t e o n e
a n o t h e r . I n a c e r t a i n sense this c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s n o t only the c r u x of
t h e w h o l e book, b u t p e r h a p s the essence of J u n g ' s p h i l o s o p h y of life:
M a n b e c o m e s w h o l e , i n t e g r a t e d , c a l m , fertile, a n d h a p p y w h e n ( a n d
only w h e n ) t h e process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n is c o m p l e t e , w h e n t h e con-
scious a n d t h e u n c o n s c i o u s h a v e l e a r n e d to live a t p e a c e a n d to com-
p l e m e n t o n e a n o t h e r . M r s . Jaffe, like D r . H e n d e r s o n , is c o n c e r n e d
w i t h d e m o n s t r a t i n g , in the familiar fabric of the conscious, m a n ' s
r e c u r r i n g interest i n — a l m o s t obsession w i t h — the symbols of the u n -
conscious. T h e y h a v e for him a p r o f o u n d l y significant, almost a nour-
14
13. ishing a n d s u s t a i n i n g , i n n e r a t t r a c t i o n — w h e t h e r t h e y o c c u r in the
myths a n d fairy tales t h a t D r . H e n d e r s o n a n a l y z e s or in the visual arts,
which, as M r s . Jaffe shows, satisfy a n d d e l i g h t us b y a c o n s t a n t a p p e a l
to the u n c o n s c i o u s .
Finally, I m u s t say a brief w o r d a b o u t D r . J a c o b i ' s c h a p t e r , w h i c h
is s o m e w h a t s e p a r a t e from the rest of the book. It is in fact a n a b b r e -
viated case history of o n e i n t e r e s t i n g a n d successful analysis. T h e value
of such a c h a p t e r in a b o o k like this is o b v i o u s ; b u t two w o r d s of w a r n -
ing are nevertheless necessary. First, as D r . v o n F r a n z points o u t , t h e r e
is no such t h i n g as a typical J u n g i a n analysis. T h e r e c a n ' t b e , because
every d r e a m is a p r i v a t e a n d i n d i v i d u a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d n o t w o
d r e a m s use t h e symbols of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s in t h e s a m e w a y . So every
J u n g i a n analysis is u n i q u e — a n d it is m i s l e a d i n g to consider this o n e ,
taken from D r . J a c o b i ' s clinical files (or a n y o t h e r o n e t h e r e has ever
been), as " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e " or " t y p i c a l . " All o n e c a n say of the case of
H e n r y a n d his s o m e t i m e s l u r i d d r e a m s is t h a t t h e y form o n e t r u e
example of t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e J u n g i a n m e t h o d m a y b e a p p l i e d to
a p a r t i c u l a r case. S e c o n d l y , t h e full history of even a c o m p a r a t i v e l y
u n c o m p l i c a t e d case w o u l d t a k e a w h o l e book to r e c o u n t . I n e v i t a b l y , the
story of H e n r y ' s analysis suffers a little in c o m p r e s s i o n . T h e references,
for instance, to t h e / Ching h a v e b e e n s o m e w h a t o b s c u r e d a n d lent a n
u n n a t u r a l ( a n d to m e unsatisfactory) flavor of the occult b y b e i n g p r e -
sented o u t of t h e i r full c o n t e x t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , we c o n c l u d e d — a n d I a m
sure the r e a d e r will a g r e e — t h a t , w i t h the w a r n i n g s d u l y given, the
clarity, to say n o t h i n g of the h u m a n interest, of H e n r y ' s analysis
greatly e n r i c h e s this b o o k .
I b e g a n b y d e s c r i b i n g h o w J u n g c a m e to w r i t e Man and his Symbols.
I end by r e m i n d i n g t h e r e a d e r of w h a t a r e m a r k a b l e — p e r h a p s u n i q u e
— p u b l i c a t i o n this is. C a r l G u s t a v J u n g was o n e of the g r e a t d o c t o r s of
all time a n d o n e of t h e g r e a t t h i n k e r s of this c e n t u r y . His object always
was to h e l p m e n a n d w o m e n to k n o w themselves, so t h a t b y self-know-
ledge a n d t h o u g h t f u l self-use they c o u l d lead full, rich, a n d h a p p y lives.
At the very e n d of his o w n life, w h i c h was as full, rich, a n d h a p p y as
any I h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d , he d e c i d e d to use the s t r e n g t h t h a t was
left him to a d d r e s s his message to a w i d e r p u b l i c t h a n h e h a d ever
tried to r e a c h before. H e c o m p l e t e d his task a n d his life in t h e s a m e
m o n t h . T h i s b o o k is his legacy to t h e b r o a d r e a d i n g p u b l i c .
'5
14. Contents
Part 1 Approaching the unconscious 18
Carl G. J u n g
Part 2 Ancient myths and modern man 104
Joseph L. Henderson
Part 3 The process of individuation 158
M.-L. von Franz
Part 4 Symbolism in the visual arts 230
Aniela Jaffe
Part 5 Symbols in an individual analysis 272
Jolande Jacobi
Conclusion: Science and the unconscious 304
M.-L. von Franz
Notes 311
Index 316
Illustration credits 319
17. Approaching the unconscious
T h e i m p o r t a n c e of d r e a m s
M a n uses the spoken or w r i t t e n word to express d o u b l e a d z e . T h i s is a n object t h a t we know,
the m e a n i n g of w h a t he w a n t s to convey. His b u t w e d o not k n o w its symbolic implications.
l a n g u a g e is full of symbols, but he also often For a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , take t h e case of the
e m p l o y s signs or i m a g e s t h a t a r e not strictly I n d i a n w h o , after a visit to E n g l a n d , told his
descriptive. S o m e a r c m e r e a b b r e v i a t i o n s or friends at h o m e t h a t the English w o r s h i p a n i -
strings of initials, such as U N , U N I C E F , or mals, because he h a d found eagles, lions, a n d
U N E S C O ; o t h e r s a r e familiar t r a d e m a r k s , the oxen in old c h u r c h e s . H e was not a w a r e (nor
n a m e s of p a t e n t m e d i c i n e s , b a d g e s , or insignia. a r e m a n y Christians) t h a t these a n i m a l s a r e
A l t h o u g h these a r e m e a n i n g l e s s in themselves, symbols of the Evangelists a n d a r e derived from
they h a v e a c q u i r e d a r e c o g n i z a b l e m e a n i n g the vision of Ezekiel, a n d t h a t this in t u r n has
t h r o u g h c o m m o n usage or d e l i b e r a t e intent. a n a n a l o g y to the E g y p t i a n sun god H o r u s a n d
Such things a r e n o t symbols. T h e y a r e signs, his four sons. T h e r e a r e , m o r e o v e r , such objects
a n d they d o no m o r e t h a n d e n o t e t h e objects as t h e wheel a n d the cross t h a t a r e k n o w n all
to w h i c h they a r e a t t a c h e d . over t h e w o r l d , yet t h a t h a v e a symbolic signi-
W h a t w e call a s y m b o l is a t e r m , a n a m e , or ficance u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . Precisely w h a t
even a p i c t u r e t h a t m a y be familiar in daily they symbolize is still a m a t t e r for controversial
life, yet t h a t possesses specific c o n n o t a t i o n s in speculation.
a d d i t i o n to its c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d o b v i o u s m e a n - T h u s a w o r d or a n i m a g e is symbolic w h e n it
ing. It implies s o m e t h i n g v a g u e , u n k n o w n , or implies s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n its obvious a n d
h i d d e n from us. M a n y C r e t a n m o n u m e n t s , for i m m e d i a t e m e a n i n g . It has a w i d e r " u n c o n -
instance, a r c m a r k e d with t h e design of the s c i o u s " aspect t h a t is never precisely defined or
18. fully explained. N o r c a n o n e h o p e to define or It is not easy to g r a s p this p o i n t . But the
explain it. As the m i n d explores the s y m b o l , it point must be g r a s p e d if we a r e to k n o w m o r e
is led to ideas t h a t lie b e y o n d the g r a s p of a b o u t the ways in w h i c h the h u m a n m i n d
reason. T h e wheel m a y lead o u r t h o u g h t s to- works. M a n , as we realize if we reflect for a
ward the concept of a " d i v i n e " sun, b u t at this m o m e n t , never perceives a n y t h i n g fully or c o m -
point reason must a d m i t its i n c o m p e t e n c e ; m a n p r e h e n d s a n y t h i n g c o m p l e t e l y . H e c a n see, h e a r ,
is unable to define a " d i v i n e " b e i n g . W h e n , t o u c h , a n d t a s t e ; b u t h o w far he sees, h o w well
with all our intellectual l i m i t a t i o n s , we call he h e a r s , w h a t his t o u c h tells h i m , a n d w h a t he
something " d i v i n e , " we h a v e merely given it a tastes d e p e n d u p o n the n u m b e r a n d q u a l i t y of
name, which m a y be based on a creed, b u t his senses. T h e s e limit his p e r c e p t i o n of the
never on factual e v i d e n c e . world a r o u n d h i m . By using scientific instru-
Because there a r e i n n u m e r a b l e things b e y o n d m e n t s he can p a r t l y c o m p e n s a t e for the defici-
the range of h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g , we con- encies of his senses. F o r e x a m p l e , he c a n e x t e n d
stantly use symbolic t e r m s to represent c o n c e p t s the r a n g e of his vision by b i n o c u l a r s or of his
that we c a n n o t define or fully c o m p r e h e n d . h e a r i n g by electrical amplification. But the most
This is one reason w h y all religions e m p l o y sym- elaborate a p p a r a t u s cannot do more than bring
bolic language or i m a g e s . But this conscious use d i s t a n t or small objects w i t h i n r a n g e of his eyes,
of symbols is only o n e aspect of a psychological or m a k e faint s o u n d s m o r e a u d i b l e . N o m a t t e r
fact of great i m p o r t a n c e : M a n also p r o d u c e s w h a t i n s t r u m e n t s he uses, at some point he
symbols unconsciously a n d s p o n t a n e o u s l y , in r e a c h e s the e d g e of c e r t a i n t y b e y o n d w h i c h con-
the form of d r e a m s . scious k n o w l e d g e c a n n o t pass.
Left, three of the four Evangelists
(in a relief on Chartres Cathedral)
appear as animals: The lion is Mark,
the ox Luke, the eagle John. Also
animals are three of the sons of the
Egyptian god Horus (above, c. 1 250
B.C.), Animals, and groups of four,
are universal religious symbols.
24
19. In many societies, representations
of the sun express man's indefinable
religious experience. Above, a
decoration on the back of a throne
belonging to the 14th-century B.C.
Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen is
dominated by a sun disk; the hands
at the end of the rays symbolize
the sun's life-giving power. Left,
a monk in 20th-century Japan prays
before a mirror that represents the
divine Sun in the Shinto religion.
Right, tungsten atoms seen with a
microscope that magnifies 2,000,000
times. Far right, the spots in center
of picture are the farthest visible
galaxies. No matter how far man
extends his senses, limits to his
conscious perception remain.
20. T h e r e are, m o r e o v e r , u n c o n s c i o u s a s p e c t s of w h e r e it a p p e a r s n o t a s a r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t b u t
o u r p e r c e p t i o n o f r e a l i t y . T h e first is t h e f a c t a s a s y m b o l i c i m a g e . A s a m a t t e r o f h i s t o r y , it
that e v e n w h e n o u r s e n s e s r e a c t t o r e a l p h e n o - was the study of d r e a m s that first enabled
mena, sights, a n d s o u n d s , t h e y a r e somehow psychologists to investigate the unconscious
translated from t h e r e a l m of r e a l i t y i n t o that a s p e c t of c o n s c i o u s p s y c h i c e v e n t s .
of t h e m i n d . W i t h i n the mind they become It is o n such evidence that psychologists
psychic e v e n t s , w h o s e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e is u n - a s s u m e t h e e x i s t e n c e of a n u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e
k n o w a b l e (for t h e p s y c h e c a n n o t k n o w its o w n — t h o u g h m a n y scientists a n d philosophers d e n y
psychical s u b s t a n c e ) . T h u s every experience its e x i s t e n c e . T h e y a r g u e n a i v e l y t h a t s u c h a n
contains a n i n d e f i n i t e n u m b e r of u n k n o w n fac- a s s u m p t i o n i m p l i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of t w o " s u b -
tors, n o t t o s p e a k o f t h e f a c t t h a t e v e r y c o n c r e t e j e c t s , " o r ( t o p u t it i n a c o m m o n p h r a s e ) two
object is a l w a y s u n k n o w n i n c e r t a i n respects, personalities within the same individual. But
because w e c a n n o t k n o w t h e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e o f t h i s is e x a c t l y w h a t it d o e s i m p l y — q u i t e cor-
m a t t e r itself. r e c t l y . A n d it is o n e o f t h e c u r s e s o f m o d e r n
T h e n t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n e v e n t s of w h i c h we m a n t h a t m a n y p e o p l e suffer from this d i v i d e d
have n o t c o n s c i o u s l y t a k e n n o t e ; t h e y h a v e r e - p e r s o n a l i t y . I t is b y n o m e a n s a pathological
m a i n e d , so t o s p e a k , b e l o w t h e t h r e s h o l d o f c o n - s y m p t o m ; it is a n o r m a l f a c t t h a t c a n b e o b -
sciousness. T h e y h a v e h a p p e n e d , b u t t h e y h a v e s e r v e d a t a n y t i m e a n d e v e r y w h e r e . I t is n o t
been a b s o r b e d s u b l i m i n a l l y , w i t h o u t o u r c o n - merely the neurotic whose right h a n d does not
scious k n o w l e d g e . W e can become aware of k n o w w h a t t h e left h a n d is d o i n g . T h i s p r e d i c a -
such h a p p e n i n g s o n l y i n a m o m e n t o f i n t u i t i o n m e n t is a s y m p t o m o f a g e n e r a l u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s
or by a p r o c e s s o f p r o f o u n d t h o u g h t t h a t l e a d s t h a t is t h e u n d e n i a b l e c o m m o n i n h e r i t a n c e o f
to a l a t e r r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e y m u s t h a v e h a p - all m a n k i n d .
pened; a n d though we m a y have originally M a n has d e v e l o p e d consciousness slowly a n d
ignored t h e i r e m o t i o n a l a n d v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e , it laboriously, in a process t h a t took u n t o l d ages to
later w e l l s u p f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a s a s o r t r e a c h t h e c i v i l i z e d s t a t e ( w h i c h is a r b i t r a r i l y
of a f t e r t h o u g h t . dated from the invention of s c r i p t in about
It m a y a p p e a r , for i n s t a n c e , in t h e f o r m o f a 4 0 0 0 B . C ) . A n d t h i s e v o l u t i o n is f a r f r o m c o m -
dream. As a general rule, the unconscious p l e t e , for l a r g e a r e a s o f t h e h u m a n m i n d are
aspect o f a n y e v e n t is r e v e a l e d t o u s i n d r e a m s , still s h r o u d e d in d a r k n e s s . W h a t w e call the
" p s y c h e " is b y n o m e a n s i d e n t i c a l w i t h our
c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d its c o n t e n t s .
W h o e v e r d e n i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e u n c o n -
s c i o u s is i n f a c t a s s u m i n g t h a t o u r p r e s e n t k n o w -
l e d g e o f t h e p s y c h e is t o t a l . A n d t h i s b e l i e f is
c l e a r l y j u s t a s false a s t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t w e
k n o w a l l t h e r e is t o b e k n o w n a b o u t t h e n a t u r a l
u n i v e r s e . O u r p s y c h e is p a r t o f n a t u r e , a n d its
e n i g m a is a s l i m i t l e s s . T h u s w e c a n n o t define
either the psyche or nature. W e can merely
state w h a t w e believe t h e m to be a n d describe,
as best w e c a n , h o w they function. Q u i t e a p a r t ,
therefore, from the evidence that medical
research has accumulated, there are strong
g r o u n d s o f l o g i c for r e j e c t i n g s t a t e m e n t s like
" T h e r e is n o u n c o n s c i o u s . " T h o s e w h o s a y s u c h
things merely express an age-old "misoneism"
— a fear of t h e n e w a n d t h e u n k n o w n .
23
21. T h e r e a r e h i s t o r i c a l r e a s o n s for t h i s r e s i s t a n c e that an individual m a y have such an uncon-
to t h e i d e a of a n u n k n o w n p a r t of t h e human scious identity with s o m e o t h e r person or object.
p s y c h e . C o n s c i o u s n e s s is a v e r y r e c e n t a c q u i s i - T h i s i d e n t i t y takes a v a r i e t y of forms a m o n g
t i o n o f n a t u r e , a n d it is still i n a n "experimen- p r i m i t i v e s . I f t h e b u s h s o u l is t h a t o f a n a n i m a l ,
t a l " s t a t e . I t is f r a i l , m e n a c e d b y s p e c i f i c d a n - t h e a n i m a l i t s e l f is c o n s i d e r e d a s s o m e s o r t of
gers, a n d easily i n j u r e d . As a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e b r o t h e r t o t h e m a n . A m a n w h o s e b r o t h e r is a
n o t e d , o n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n mental de- c r o c o d i l e , for i n s t a n c e , is s u p p o s e d t o b e safe
rangements that occur a m o n g primitive people w h e n s w i m m i n g a crocodile-infested river. If
is w h a t t h e y c a l l " t h e loss o f a s o u l " — w h i c h t h e b u s h s o u l is a t r e e , t h e t r e e is p r e s u m e d t o
m e a n s , as the n a m e indicates, a n o t i c e a b l e dis- h a v e s o m e t h i n g like p a r e n t a l a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e
r u p t i o n (or, m o r e t e c h n i c a l l y , a dissociation) of i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e r n e d . I n b o t h cases a n injury
consciousness. t o t h e b u s h s o u l is i n t e r p r e t e d a s a n i n j u r y t o
A m o n g s u c h p e o p l e , w h o s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s is the m a n .
a t a different level of d e v e l o p m e n t from o u r s , I n s o m e t r i b e s , it is a s s u m e d t h a t a m a n h a s
t h e " s o u l " ( o r p s y c h e ) is n o t felt t o b e a u n i t . a n u m b e r o f s o u l s ; t h i s b e l i e f e x p r e s s e s t h e feel-
Many primitives assume that a man has a ing of s o m e p r i m i t i v e individuals that they each
" b u s h s o u l " as well as his o w n , a n d t h a t this consist of several linked b u t d i s t i n c t units. T h i s
b u s h s o u l is i n c a r n a t e i n a w i l d a n i m a l o r a t r e e , m e a n s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p s y c h e is f a r from
with which the h u m a n individual has some kind b e i n g safely s y n t h e s i z e d ; o n the contrary, it
o f p s y c h i c i d e n t i t y . T h i s is w h a t the distin- t h r e a t e n s to f r a g m e n t o n l y too easily u n d e r t h e
guished French ethnologist Lucien Levy-Briihl o n s l a u g h t of u n c h e c k e d e m o t i o n s .
called a "mystical p a r t i c i p a t i o n . " H e later re- W h i l e t h i s s i t u a t i o n is f a m i l i a r t o u s f r o m t h e
tracted this term under pressure of adverse s t u d i e s o f a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , it is n o t so i r r e l e v a n t
criticism, but I believe that his critics were t o o u r o w n a d v a n c e d c i v i l i z a t i o n as it might
w r o n g . I t is a w e l l - k n o w n psychological fact s e e m . W e t o o c a n b e c o m e d i s s o c i a t e d a n d lose
" D i s s o c i a t i o n " m e a n s a s p l i t t i n g in
the psyche, causing a neurosis. A
f a m o u s f i c t i o n a l e x a m p l e of t h i s
state is Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
( 1 8 8 6 ) by t h e S c o t s a u t h o r R. L
S t e v e n s o n . In t h e s t o r y J e k y l l ' s
" s p l i t " t o o k t h e f o r m of a p h y s i c a l
c h a n g e , rather t h a n (as in r e a l i t y )
an inner, p s y c h i c state. Left, M r .
H y d e ( f r o m t h e 1 9 3 2 f i l m of t h e
story) — J e k y l l ' s "other half."
P r i m i t i v e p e o p l e call d i s s o c i a t i o n
" l o s s of a s o u l " ; t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t
a m a n has a " b u s h s o u l " as w e l l as
his o w n . R i g h t , a N y a n g a t r i b e s m a n
of w e s t c e n t r a l A f r i c a w e a r i n g a m a s k
of the h o r n b i l l — t h e b i r d t h a t h e
i d e n t i f i e s w i t h his b u s h s o u l .
Far r i g h t , t e l e p h o n i s t s o n a b u s y
s w i t c h b o a r d h a n d l e m a n y c a l l s at
o n c e . In s u c h j o b s p e o p l e " s p l i t
o f f " parts of t h e i r c o n s c i o u s m i n d s
t o c o n c e n t r a t e . B u t t h i s split is
controlled and temporary, not a
spontaneous, abnormal dissociation.
2 I
22. our i d e n t i t y . W e c a n b e p o s s e s s e d a n d altered "loss of a s o u l , " or e v e n t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l c a u s e
by m o o d s , o r b e c o m e u n r e a s o n a b l e a n d u n a b l e of a neurosis.
to r e c a l l i m p o r t a n t facts about ourselves or Thus, even in o u r day the unity of con-
o t h e r s , so t h a t p e o p l e a s k : " W h a t t h e d e v i l h a s s c i o u s n e s s is still a d o u b t f u l a f f a i r ; it c a n too
got i n t o y o u ? " W e t a l k a b o u t b e i n g a b l e "to e a s i l y b e d i s r u p t e d . A n a b i l i t y to c o n t r o l o n e ' s
control o u r s e l v e s , " b u t s e l f - c o n t r o l is a r a r e a n d e m o t i o n s that m a y be very desirable from o n e
remarkable virtue. W e m a y think we have our- point of view w o u l d b e a q u e s t i o n a b l e a c c o m -
selves u n d e r c o n t r o l ; y e t a f r i e n d c a n e a s i l y tell p l i s h m e n t f r o m a n o t h e r , for it w o u l d deprive
us t h i n g s a b o u t o u r s e l v e s o f w h i c h w e h a v e n o social i n t e r c o u r s e of v a r i e t v . color, a n d w a r m t h .
knowledge. It is a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d that we must
Beyond d o u b t , e v e n in w h a t w e call a high r e v i e w the i m p o r t a n c e of d r e a m s t h o s e flimsy,
level of c i v i l i z a t i o n , h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s has evasive, unreliable, vague, a n d uncertain fan-
not yet a c h i e v e d a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e o f c o n t i - tasies. T o e x p l a i n m y p o i n t of view, I s h o u l d
nuity. It is still v u l n e r a b l e a n d l i a b l e t o f r a g - l i k e t o d e s c r i b e h o w it d e v e l o p e d o v e r a p e r i o d
mentation. T h i s c a p a c i t y to isolate p a r t of o n e ' s of y e a r s , a n d h o w I w a s led to c o n c l u d e that
m i n d , i n d e e d , is a v a l u a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . It d r e a m s are the most frequent a n d universally
e n a b l e s us to c o n c e n t r a t e u p o n o n e t h i n g a t a a c c e s s i b l e s o u r c e for t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f m a n ' s
time, e x c l u d i n g e v e r y t h i n g else t h a t m a y c l a i m symbolizing faculty.
our a t t e n t i o n . B u t t h e r e is a w o r l d o f d i f f e r e n c e Sigmund Freud was the pioneer who first
b e t w e e n a c o n s c i o u s d e c i s i o n t o s p l i t off a n d tried to e x p l o r e empirically the unconscious
temporarily s u p p r e s s a p a r t of o n e ' s p s y c h e , a n d b a c k g r o u n d of consciousness. H e w o r k e d on the
a c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h this h a p p e n s spontane- general assumption that d r e a m s are not a matter
ously, w i t h o u t o n e ' s k n o w l e d g e o r c o n s e n t a n d of c h a n c e but are associated with conscious
even a g a i n s t o n e ' s i n t e n t i o n . T h e f o r m e r is a thoughts and problems. This assumption was
civilized a c h i e v e m e n t , the latter a primitive n o t in t h e least a r b i t r a r y . It w a s b a s e d u p o n t h e
25
23. c o n c l u s i o n o f e m i n e n t n e u r o l o g i s t s (for i n s t a n c e , a s t h m a : H e " c a n ' t b r e a t h e the a t m o s p h e r e at
Pierre J a n e t ) t h a t neurotic s y m p t o m s are re- h o m e . " A t h i r d suffers f r o m a p e c u l i a r para-
lated to s o m e conscious e x p e r i e n c e . T h e y even lysis o f t h e l e g s : H e c a n ' t w a l k , i . e . " h e can't
appear to b e split-off a r e a s of t h e conscious go on a n y m o r e . " A fourth, w h o vomits w h e n
m i n d , w h i c h , at a n o t h e r t i m e a n d u n d e r differ- h e e a t s , " c a n n o t d i g e s t " s o m e u n p l e a s a n t fact.
ent conditions, c a n be conscious. I c o u l d cite m a n y e x a m p l e s of this k i n d , but
Before the b e g i n n i n g of this c e n t u r y , Freud such physical reactions are only one form in
and Josef Breuer had recognized that neurotic w h i c h t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t t r o u b l e us u n c o n s c i -
s y m p t o m s — h y s t e r i a , c e r t a i n t y p e s of p a i n , a n d ously m a y express t h e m s e l v e s . T h e y m o r e often
a b n o r m a l b e h a v i o r — a r e in fact symbolically find e x p r e s s i o n in o u r d r e a m s .
m e a n i n g f u l . T h e y a r e o n e w a y in w h i c h the A n y psychologist w h o h a s listened to n u m -
unconscious mind expresses itself, j u s t as it bers of p e o p l e d e s c r i b i n g t h e i r d r e a m s knows
m a y in d r e a m s ; a n d t h e y a r e e q u a l l y s y m b o l i c . that d r e a m symbols have m u c h greater variety
A p a t i e n t , for i n s t a n c e , w h o is c o n f r o n t e d with t h a n the p h y s i c a l s y m p t o m s of neurosis. They
an intolerable situation m a y develop a spasm o f t e n consist of e l a b o r a t e a n d p i c t u r e s q u e fan-
w h e n e v e r h e tries to s w a l l o w : H e " c a n ' t swal- t a s i e s . B u t if t h e a n a l y s t w h o is c o n f r o n t e d by
low i t . " U n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s of p s y c h o l o - this d r e a m m a t e r i a l uses F r e u d ' s o r i g i n a l t e c h -
gical stress, a n o t h e r p a t i e n t h a s a n a t t a c k of n i q u e o f " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n , " h e finds t h a t d r e a m s
1 S i g m u n d Freud ( V i e n n a ) 5 Max Eitingon (Berlin) 9 Eugen Bleuler (Zurich)
2 Otto Rank (Vienna) 6 James J. Putnam (Boston) 10 Emma J u n g (Kusnacht)
3 Ludwig Binswanger (Kreuzlingen) 7 Ernest J o n e s ( T o r o n t o ) 11 S a n d o r F e r e n c z i ( B u d a p e s t )
4 A A Brill 8 W i l h e l m Stekel (Vienna) 12 C. G J u n g (Kusnacht)
26
24. can e v e n t u a l l y b e r e d u c e d to c e r t a i n basic p a t - of " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n . " B u t after a t i m e I b e g a n to
terns. T h i s t e c h n i q u e p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t feel t h a t t h i s w a s a m i s l e a d i n g a n d inadequate
in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , for it use of t h e rich fantasies t h a t t h e unconscious
enabled Freud to use d r e a m s as t h e starting p r o d u c e s in sleep. M y d o u b t s r e a l l y b e g a n w h e n
point from w h i c h t h e u n c o n s c i o u s p r o b l e m of a c o l l e a g u e told m e of a n e x p e r i e n c e he had
the p a t i e n t m i g h t b e e x p l o r e d . d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of a long t r a i n j o u r n e y in
Freud m a d e the simple but penetrating obser- Russia. T h o u g h he did not k n o w the l a n g u a g e
v a t i o n t h a t if a d r e a m e r is e n c o u r a g e d t o g o o n a n d could not even d e c i p h e r the Cyrillic script,
talking a b o u t his d r e a m i m a g e s a n d t h e t h o u g h t s he found himself m u s i n g over the strange letters
that these p r o m p t in his m i n d , h e will give in w h i c h the r a i l w a y notices w e r e w r i t t e n , a n d
himself a w a y a n d r e v e a l t h e u n c o n s c i o u s b a c k - h e fell i n t o a r e v e r i e i n w h i c h h e i m a g i n e d a l l
g r o u n d of his a i l m e n t s , in b o t h w h a t h e s a y s s o r t s o f m e a n i n g s for t h e m .
and w h a t he d e l i b e r a t e l y o m i t s s a y i n g . His ideas O n e i d e a l e d t o a n o t h e r , a n d in h i s r e l a x e d
may seem i r r a t i o n a l a n d i r r e l e v a n t , b u t after a m o o d h e found t h a t this "free a s s o c i a t i o n " h a d
t i m e it b e c o m e s r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o s e e w h a t it is stirred u p m a n y old m e m o r i e s . A m o n g them
t h a t h e is t r y i n g to a v o i d , what unpleasant h e w a s a n n o y e d t o find s o m e l o n g - b u r i e d d i s -
thought or experience h e is s u p p r e s s i n g . No agreeable topics t h i n g s h e h a d w i s h e d t o for-
matter h o w he tries to c a m o u f l a g e it, e v e r y - get a n d had forgotten consciously. He had in
thing he says p o i n t s to t h e c o r e of his p r e d i c a - fact a r r i v e d at w h a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s w o u l d call
m e n t . A d o c t o r s e e s so m a n y t h i n g s f r o m the h i s " c o m p l e x e s " — t h a t is, r e p r e s s e d emotional
s e a m y s i d e o f life t h a t h e is s e l d o m f a r f r o m t h e themes that can cause constant psychological
truth when he interprets the hints that his d i s t u r b a n c e s o r e v e n , in m a n y c a s e s , t h e s y m p -
patient p r o d u c e s as s i g n s o f a n uneasy con- t o m s of neurosis.
science. W h a t h e e v e n t u a l l y d i s c o v e r s , unfor- T h i s e p i s o d e o p e n e d m v e v e s to t h e f a r ! thai
tunately, c o n f i r m s his e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h u s far, it w a s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o u s e a d r e a m a s t h e p o i n t
nobody c a n say a n y t h i n g a g a i n s t F r e u d ' s t h e o r y o f d e p a r t u r e for t h e p r o c e s s o f " f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n "
of r e p r e s s i o n a n d w i s h f u l f i l l m e n t as a p p a r e n t if o n e w i s h e d to d i s c o v e r the c o m p l e x e s of a
causes of d r e a m s y m b o l i s m . p a t i e n t . It s h o w e d m e t h a t o n e c a n r e a c h the
Freud attached particular importance to c e n t e r d i r e c t l y from a n y p o i n t of t h e c o m p a s s .
d r e a m s as t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e for a p r o c e s s One could begin from Cyrillic letters, from
Left, m a n y of t h e great p i o n e e r s of
modern p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , p h o t o -
graphed at a C o n g r e s s o f
Psychoanalysis in i 9 1 1 at W e i m a r ,
Germany. T h e key, b e l o w left,
identifies s o m e of t h e m a j o r f i g u r e s .
Right, the " i n k b l o t " test d e v i s e d
by the S w i s s p s y c h i a t r i s t H e r m a n n
Rorschach. T h e s h a p e of t h e b l o t
can serve as a s t i m u l u s f o r free
association; in fact, a l m o s t a n y
irregular free s h a p e c a n spark off
the associative p r o c e s s . L e o n a r d o
da Vinci w r o t e in his Notebooks:
"It should not b e hard f o r y o u t o
stop s o m e t i m e s a n d l o o k i n t o t h e
stains of w a l l s , or ashes of a fire,
or clouds, or m u d or like p l a c e s ,
in w h i c h . . . y o u m a y f i n d really
marvelous i d e a s . "
25. meditations u p o n a crystal ball, a p r a y e r wheel, n i q u e w a s o n e t h a t c o u l d t a k e a c c o u n t o f all
or a m o d e r n p a i n t i n g , or even from casual c o n - the v a r i o u s w i d e r aspects of a d r e a m . A story
versation a b o u t s o m e q u i t e trivial event. T h e told by t h e conscious m i n d has a b e g i n n i n g , a
d r e a m w a s n o m o r e a n d n o less useful in t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d a n e n d , b u t t h e s a m e is n o t
respect t h a n a n y o t h e r possible starting point. t r u e of a d r e a m . Its d i m e n s i o n s in t i m e and
N e v e r t h e l e s s , d r e a m s h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r signifi- s p a c e a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ; t o u n d e r s t a n d it y o u
cance, even though they often arise from an m u s t e x a m i n e it f r o m e v e r y a s p e c t — j u s t as y o u
e m o t i o n a l u p s e t in w h i c h t h e h a b i t u a l c o m p l e x e s m a y t a k e a n u n k n o w n o b j e c t in y o u r h a n d s a n d
a r e also involved. ( T h e h a b i t u a l c o m p l e x e s a r e turn it o v e r a n d o v e r u n t i l y o u a r e familiar
t h e t e n d e r spots of t h e p s y c h e , w h i c h r e a c t most w i t h e v e r y d e t a i l o f its s h a p e .
quickly to a n external stimulus or d i s t u r b a n c e . ) P e r h a p s I h a v e n o w said e n o u g h to s h o w h o w
T h a t is w h y free a s s o c i a t i o n c a n l e a d o n e f r o m I came increasingly to disagree with "free"
a n y d r e a m to t h e critical secret t h o u g h t s . a s s o c i a t i o n a s F r e u d first e m p l o y e d i t : I w a n t e d
A t t h i s p o i n t , h o w e v e r , it o c c u r r e d t o m e t h a t t o k e e p a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e t o t h e d r e a m itself,
(if I w a s r i g h t so f a r ) it m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y f o l l o w a n d t o e x c l u d e all t h e i r r e l e v a n t i d e a s a n d a s s o -
that d r e a m s h a v e s o m e special a n d m o r e signi- c i a t i o n s t h a t it m i g h t e v o k e . T r u e , t h e s e c o u l d
ficant function of their o w n . V e r y often d r e a m s lead one t o w a r d the c o m p l e x e s of a patient,
have a definite, evidently purposeful structure, b u t I h a d a m o r e f a r - r e a c h i n g p u r p o s e in m i n d
indicating an underlying idea or intention than the discovery of c o m p l e x e s that cause
t h o u g h , a s a r u l e , t h e l a t t e r is n o t i m m e d i a t e l y neurotic disturbances. There are m a n y other
c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . I t h e r e f o r e b e g a n to c o n s i d e r m e a n s by which these can be identified: The
w h e t h e r o n e s h o u l d p a y m o r e a t t e n t i o n to t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t , for i n s t a n c e , c a n g e t a l l t h e h i n t s
a c t u a l form a n d c o n t e n t of a d r e a m , r a t h e r t h a n h e n e e d s b y u s i n g w o r d - a s s o c i a t i o n tests ( b y ask-
allowing ""free" association to lead one off ing t h e p a t i e n t w h a t h e associates to a given
t h r o u g h a train of ideas to c o m p l e x e s that could set of w o r d s , a n d b y s t u d y i n g h i s r e s p o n s e s ) .
as easily b e r e a c h e d by o t h e r m e a n s . B u t t o k n o w a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h e p s y c h i c life-
T h i s n e w t h o u g h t w a s a t u r n i n g p o i n t in t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of m y p s y c h o l o g y . It m e a n t t h a t I
gradually gave u p following associations that
l e d far a w a y f r o m t h e t e x t o f a d r e a m . I c h o s e
to c o n c e n t r a t e r a t h e r o n t h e associations to t h e
d r e a m itself, b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e l a t t e r e x p r e s s e d
s o m e t h i n g specific that the unconscious was
trying to say.
T h e c h a n g e in m y a t t i t u d e t o w a r d dreams
involved a c h a n g e of m e t h o d ; the new tech-
T w o different possible stimuli of
free a s s o c i a t i o n : t h e w h i r l i n g
prayer w h e e l of a T i b e t a n b e g g a r
( l e f t ) , or a f o r t u n e teller's c r y s t a l
ball ( r i g h t , a m o d e r n c r y s t a l gazer
at a B r i t i s h f a i r ) .
26. process of a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s w h o l e p e r s o n a l i t y , it f o r m itself tells u s w h a t b e l o n g s t o it a n d w h a t
is i m p o r t a n t t o r e a l i z e t h a t h i s d r e a m s a n d t h e i r leads a w a y from it. W h i l e " f r e e " association
symbolic images h a v e a m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t l u r e s o n e a w a y f r o m t h a t m a t e r i a l i n a k i n d of
role to p l a y . z i g z a g l i n e , t h e m e t h o d I e v o l v e d is m o r e l i k e a
A l m o s t e v e r y o n e k n o w s , for e x a m p l e , that circumambulation w h o s e c e n t e r is t h e d r e a m
t h e r e is a n e n o r m o u s v a r i e t y o f i m a g e s b y w h i c h p i c t u r e . I w o r k all a r o u n d t h e d r e a m picture
the s e x u a l a c t c a n b e s y m b o l i z e d ( o r , o n e m i g h t and disregard every attempt that the d r e a m e r
say, r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e f o r m o f a n allegory). m a k e s t o b r e a k a w a y f r o m it. T i m e a n d t i m e
E a c h of t h e s e i m a g e s c a n l e a d , b y a p r o c e s s o f a g a i n , in m y p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k , I h a v e h a d t o
association, to t h e i d e a of s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e a n d repeat the words: "Let's get back to your
to specific c o m p l e x e s t h a t a n y i n d i v i d u a l m a y d r e a m . W h a t d o e s t h e dream say?"
h a v e a b o u t his o w n s e x u a l a t t i t u d e s . B u t o n e F o r i n s t a n c e , a p a t i e n t of m i n e d r e a m e d of
could j u s t a s w e l l u n e a r t h s u c h c o m p l e x e s b y a d r u n k e n a n d disheveled vulgar w o m a n . In
d a y - d r e a m i n g o n a set o f i n d e c i p h e r a b l e R u s s i a n t h e d r e a m , it s e e m e d t h a t t h i s w o m a n w a s his
letters. I w a s t h u s l e d t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a wife, t h o u g h in r e a l life h i s w i f e w a s t o t a l l y
dream can contain some message other than the different. O n the surface, therefore, the d r e a m
sexual a l l e g o r y , a n d t h a t it d o e s s o for d e f i n i t e was shockingly untrue, a n d the patient i m m e -
reasons. T o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t : d i a t e l y r e j e c t e d it a s d r e a m n o n s e n s e . I f I, a s his
A m a n m a y d r e a m o f i n s e r t i n g a k e y in a d o c t o r , h a d let h i m s t a r t a p r o c e s s o f a s s o c i a -
lock, of w i e l d i n g a h e a v y s t i c k , o r o f b r e a k i n g t i o n , h e w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y h a v e t r i e d t o g e t a s far
down a d o o r w i t h a b a t t e r i n g r a m . E a c h of a w a y as possible from (he u n p l e a s a n t suggestion
these c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s a s e x u a l a l l e g o r y . B u t of his d r e a m . In t h a t case, he w o u l d h a v e e n d e d
the fact t h a t h i s u n c o n s c i o u s for its o w n pur- w i t h o n e o f his s t a p l e c o m p l e x e s a complex,
poses h a s c h o s e n o n e o f t h e s e s p e c i f i c i m a g e s p o s s i b l y , t h a t h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h his w i f e
it m a y b e t h e k e y , t h e s t i c k , o r t h e b a t t e r i n g and we should have learned nothing about the
ram is a l s o o f m a j o r significance. The real s p e c i a l m e a n i n g of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r d r e a m .
task is to u n d e r s t a n d why t h e k e y h a s been
preferred t o t h e s t i c k , o r t h e s t i c k t o t h e r a m .
And s o m e t i m e s t h i s m i g h t e v e n l e a d o n e t o d i s -
cover t h a t it is n o t t h e s e x u a l a c t a t all t h a t is
represented, b u t s o m e q u i t e different psycholo-
gical p o i n t .
F r o m this l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g , I c o n c l u d e d t h a t
only t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t is c l e a r l y a n d v i s i b l y p a r t
of a d r e a m s h o u l d b e u s e d i n i n t e r p r e t i n g it.
T h e d r e a m h a s its o w n l i m i t a t i o n . I t s s p e c i f i c
One of the c o u n t l e s s s y m b o l i c or
allegorical i m a g e s of t h e s e x u a l
act isa deer h u n t : R i g h t , a d e t a i l
from a p a i n t i n g b y t h e 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y
German artist C r a n a c h . T h e s e x u a l
implication of t h e deer h u n t is
underlined b y a m e d i e v a l E n g l i s h
folk song called " T h e K e e p e r " :
The first doe that he shot at he
missed.
And the second doe he trimmed he
kissed,
And the third ran away in a young
man's heart.
She's amongst the leaves of the
green 0
27. A key in a l o c k may be a s e x u a l
s y m b o l — b u t n o t i n v a r i a b l y . Left,
a s e c t i o n of an a l t a r p i e c e b y t h e
1 5 t h - c e n t u r y F l e m i s h artist C a m p i n .
The door was intended to symbolize
hope, the lock to symbolize charity,
a n d t h e k e y to s y m b o l i z e t h e d e s i r e
for G o d . B e l o w , a British b i s h o p
d u r i n g the consecration of a c h u r c h
carries o u t a t r a d i t i o n a l c e r e m o n y
by k n o c k i n g o n t h e c h u r c h d o o r w i t h
a s t a f f — w h i c h is o b v i o u s l y n o t a
p h a l l i c s y m b o l b u t a s y m b o l of
authority and the shepherd's crook.
N o i n d i v i d u a l s y m b o l i c i m a g e c a n be
said t o h a v e a d o g m a t i c a l l y f i x e d ,
generalized m e a n i n g .
The " a n i m a " is t h e f e m a l e e l e m e n t
in t h e m a l e u n c o n s c i o u s . (It a n d t h e
" a n i m u s " in t h e f e m a l e u n c o n s c i o u s
are d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3.) T h i s
i n n e r d u a l i t y is o f t e n s y m b o l i z e d
by a h e r m a p h r o d i t i c f i g u r e , like
the c r o w n e d hermaphrodite, above
right, from a 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y alchemical
manuscript. Right, a physical image
of m a n ' s p s y c h i c " b i s e x u a l i t y " : a
h u m a n cell w i t h its c h r o m o s o m e s .
A l l o r g a n i s m s h a v e t w o sets of
c h r o m o s o m e s — o n e f r o m each parent.
,30
28. W h a t , t h e n , w a s his u n c o n s c i o u s t r y i n g to f e m a l e e l e m e n t s in all o f u s , it w a s s a i d that
convey by s u c h a n o b v i o u s l y u n t r u e s t a t e m e n t ? "every m a n carries a w o m a n within himself
C l e a r l y , it s o m e h o w expressed the idea of a It is t h i s f e m a l e e l e m e n t i n e v e r y m a l e t h a t I
degenerate female w h o w a s closely c o n n e c t e d have called the "anima." This "feminine"
with t h e d r e a m e r ' s l i f e ; b u t s i n c e t h e p r o j e c t i o n a s p e c t is e s s e n t i a l l y a c e r t a i n i n f e r i o r k i n d of
of this i m a g e o n t o h i s w i f e w a s u n j u s t i f i e d and relatedness to the s u r r o u n d i n g s , a n d particu-
factually untrue, I had to look elsewhere l a r l y t o w o m e n , w h i c h is k e p t c a r e f u l l y con-
before I f o u n d o u t w h a t t h i s r e p u l s i v e image cealed from others as well as from oneself.
represented. I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h o u g h a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s visible-
In t h e M i d d l e A g e s , l o n g b e f o r e t h e p h y s i o - personality m a y seem quite n o r m a l , he may
logists d e m o n s t r a t e d that by reason of our well b e c o n c e a l i n g f r o m o t h e r s or even from
glandular structure there are both male and himself—the deplorable condition of "the
woman within."
That was the case with this particular
patient: His female side w a s not nice. His
d r e a m w a s a c t u a l l y s a y i n g t o h i m : " Y o u a r e in
some respects behaving like a degenerate
female," and thus gave him an appropriate
shock. ( A n e x a m p l e of this k i n d , of c o u r s e , m u s t
n o t be t a k e n as e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
is c o n c e r n e d with "moral" injunctions. The
d r e a m was not telling the p a t i e n t to "behave
b e t t e r , " b u t w a s s i m p l y t r y i n g to b a l a n c e the
l o p s i d e d n a t u r e of his c o n s c i o u s m i n d , which
was maintaining the fiction that he was a
perfect g e n t l e m a n throughout.)
I t is e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y d r e a m e r s tend
to i g n o r e a n d e v e n d e n y t h e m e s s a g e of t h e i r
dreams. Consciousness naturally resists any-
thing unconscious and unknown. I have already
pointed out the existence among primitive
peoples of w h a t anthropologists call "miso-
n c i s m , " a d e e p a n d s u p e r s t i t i o u s fear of n o v e l t y .
T h e p r i m i t i v e s m a n i f e s t all t h e r e a c t i o n s o f t h e
wild animal against untoward events. But
" c i v i l i z e d " m a n r e a c t s to n e w i d e a s in much
t h e s a m e w a y , e r e c t i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r s to
p r o t e c t himself from the shock of facing s o m e -
t h i n g n e w . T h i s c a n easily b e o b s e r v e d in a n y
i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e a c t i o n to his o w n d r e a m s when
obliged to a d m i t a surprising t h o u g h t . Many
p i o n e e r s in p h i l o s o p h y , s c i e n c e , a n d e v e n l i t e r a -
ture h a v e b e e n victims of t h e i n n a t e conserv-
atism of t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . Psychology is
o n e o f t h e y o u n g e s t o f t h e s c i e n c e s ; b e c a u s e it
a t t e m p t s to d e a l w i t h t h e w o r k i n g of t h e u n c o n -
s c i o u s , it h a s i n e v i t a b l y e n c o u n t e r e d m i s o n e i s m
in a n e x t r e m e f o r m .
:5>
29. Past and future in the unconscious
S o far, I h a v e b e e n s k e t c h i n g s o m e of t h e p r i n - c o n t e n t s of t h e m i n d a r e l i n k e d t o g e t h e r . T a k e
ciples o n w h i c h I a p p r o a c h e d the p r o b l e m of a n e x a m p l e w i t h w h i c h e v e r y o n e is f a m i l i a r .
d r e a m s , for w h e n w e w a n t t o i n v e s t i g a t e m a n ' s S u d d e n l y y o u find y o u c a n n o t r e m e m b e r w h a t
faculty to p r o d u c e s y m b o l s , d r e a m s p r o v e to b e y o u w e r e g o i n g to say next, t h o u g h a m o m e n t
t h e m o s t b a s i c a n d a c c e s s i b l e m a t e r i a l for t h i s ago the t h o u g h t was perfectly clear. O r p e r h a p s
p u r p o s e . T h e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l p o i n t s in d e a l - y o u w e r e a b o u t t o i n t r o d u c e a f r i e n d , a n d his
ing w i t h d r e a m s a r e t h e s e : First, the dream n a m e e s c a p e d y o u a s y o u w e r e a b o u t t o u t t e r it.
s h o u l d be t r e a t e d as a fact, a b o u t w h i c h one Y o u say y o u c a n n o t r e m e m b e r ; in fact, t h o u g h ,
must m a k e no previous assumption except that the thought has become unconscious, or at
it s o m e h o w m a k e s s e n s e ; a n d s e c o n d , t h e d r e a m least momentarily separated from conscious-
is a s p e c i f i c e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . n e s s . W e find t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n w i t h o u r
O n e could scarcely put these principles m o r e s e n s e s . If w e l i s t e n t o a c o n t i n u o u s n o t e o n t h e
m o d e s t l y . N o m a t t e r h o w low a n y o n e ' s o p i n i o n fringe of a u d i b i l i t y , t h e s o u n d s e e m s to stop
of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s m a y b e , h e m u s t concede at r e g u l a r intervals a n d then start again. Such
t h a t it is w o r t h i n v e s t i g a t i n g ; t h e u n c o n s c i o u s oscillations a r e d u e to a p e r i o d i c d e c r e a s e a n d
is a t l e a s t o n a l e v e l w i t h t h e l o u s e , w h i c h , a f t e r i n c r e a s e in o n e ' s a t t e n t i o n , n o t to a n y change
all, e n j o y s t h e h o n e s t i n t e r e s t of t h e e n t o m o l o - in t h e n o t e .
gist. If s o m e b o d y with little e x p e r i e n c e and But w h e n s o m e t h i n g slips o u t o f o u r con-
k n o w l e d g e of d r e a m s t h i n k s t h a t d r e a m s arc- s c i o u s n e s s it d o c s n o t c e a s e t o e x i s t , a n y more
just c h a o t i c o c c u r r e n c e s w i t h o u t m e a n i n g , he than a car that has disappeared r o u n d a corner
is a t l i b e r t y t o d o s o . B u t if o n e a s s u m e s that h a s v a n i s h e d i n t o t h i n a i r . I t is s i m p l y o u t o f
t h e y a r e n o r m a l e v e n t s ( w h i c h , as a m a t t e r of s i g h t . J u s t a s w e m a y l a t e r see t h e c a r again,
f a c t , t h e y a r e ) , o n e is b o u n d t o c o n s i d e r that so w e c o m e across thoughts that were tem-
they arc either causal i.e. that there is a p o r a r i l y lost t o u s .
r a t i o n a l c a u s e for t h e i r e x i s t e n c e o r in a c e r - T h u s , p a r t o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s c o n s i s t s of a
tain way purposive, or both. m u l t i t u d e of t e m p o r a r i l y obscured thoughts,
L e t us n o w l o o k a l i t t l e m o r e c l o s e l y a t t h e i m p r e s s i o n s , a n d i m a g e s t h a t , in s p i t e o f b e i n g
w a y s in w h i c h t h e c o n s c i o u s a n d unconscious lost, c o n t i n u e t o i n f l u e n c e o u r c o n s c i o u s m i n d s .
30. A m a n w h o is d i s t r a c t e d o r "absent-minded"" b e h a v i o r b e c a u s e t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s is l i a b l e
will w a l k a c r o s s t h e r o o m t o f e t c h something. to u n p r e d i c t a b l e eclipse by a n i n t e r f e r e n c e from
He s t o p s , s e e m i n g l y p e r p l e x e d ; h e h a s f o r g o t t e n t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . E v e n their skin s e n s a t i o n s m a y
what he was after. His hands grope about reveal similar f l u c t u a t i o n s of a w a r e n e s s . At o n e
a m o n g t h e o b j e c t s o n t h e t a b l e a s if h e were m o m e n t t h e h y s t e r i c a l p e r s o n m a y feel a n e e d l e
sleepwalking; he is o b l i v i o u s of his original p r i c k in t h e a r m ; a t t h e n e x t it m a y p a s s u n n o -
p u r p o s e , yet h e is u n c o n s c i o u s l y g u i d e d b y it. t i c e d . If h i s a t t e n t i o n c a n b e f o c u s e d o n a c e r -
T h e n h e r e a l i z e s w h a t it is t h a t h e w a n t s . H i s tain point, the whole of his body can be
unconscious has p r o m p t e d him. completely anesthetized until the tension that
If y o u o b s e r v e the b e h a v i o r of a neurotic c a u s e s this b l a c k o u t of t h e senses h a s b e e n re-
person, y o u c a n s e e h i m doing many things laxed. Sense perception is t h e n immediately
that h e a p p e a r s t o b e d o i n g c o n s c i o u s l y and r e s t o r e d . All t h e t i m e , h o w e v e r , h e h a s been
p u r p o s e f u l l y . Y e t if y o u a s k h i m a b o u t them, u n c o n s c i o u s l y a w a r e of w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g .
you will d i s c o v e r t h a t h e is e i t h e r u n c o n s c i o u s The physician can see this process quite
of t h e m o r h a s s o m e t h i n g q u i t e different in clearly w h e n he hypnotizes such a patient. It
mind. H e h e a r s a n d does not h e a r ; h e sees, is e a s y t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e p a t i e n t h a s b e e n
yet is b l i n d ; h e k n o w s a n d is i g n o r a n t . Such a w a r e o f e v e r y d e t a i l . T h e p r i c k in t h e a r m o r
e x a m p l e s a r e so c o m m o n t h a t t h e s p e c i a l i s t s o o n the remark made during an eclipse of c o n -
realizes t h a t u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s o f t h e m i n d s c i o u s n e s s c a n b e r e c a l l e d as a c c u r a t e l y as if
b e h a v e as if t h e y w e r e c o n s c i o u s a n d t h a t y o u there had been no anesthesia or "forgetfulness."
can never be sure, in such cases, whether I recall a w o m a n w h o w a s o n c e a d m i t t e d to t h e
t h o u g h t , s p e e c h , o r a c t i o n is c o n s c i o u s o r n o t . c l i n i c in a s t a t e of c o m p l e t e s t u p o r . W h e n s h e
It is this k i n d of b e h a v i o r that makes so r e c o v e r e d consciousness next d a y . she k n e w w h o
many physicians d i s m i s s s t a t e m e n t s by h y s t e r i - she was but did not k n o w w h e r e she was. how
cal p a t i e n t s as u t t e r lies. S u c h p e r s o n s c e r t a i n l y or w h y she h a d c o m e there, or even the d a t e .
produce m o r e u n t r u t h s t h a n m o s t of us, b u t Yet after I h a d h y p n o t i z e d h e r , she told m e w h y
" l i e " is s c a r c e l y t h e r i g h t w o r d t o u s e . I n f a c t , s h e h a d f a l l e n ill. h o w s h e h a d g o t t o t h e c l i n i c ,
their m e n t a l state causes an uncertainty of and who had admitted h e r . All t h e s e details
" M i s o n e i s m . " an u n r e a s o n i n g fear
a n d h a t r e d of n e w ideas, w a s a m a j o r
b l o c k to p u b l i c a c c e p t a n c e of m o d e r n
p s y c h S t o g y It also o p p o s e d D a r w i n ' s
t h e o r i e s of e v o l u t i o n — as w h e n an
American schoolteacher named
S c o p e s w a s t r i e d in 1 9 2 5 for t e a c h i n g
e v o l u t i o n . Far left, at t h e trial, t h e
lawyer Clarence Darrow defending
S c o p e s ; c e n t e r left, S c o p e s h i m s e l f
E g u a l l y a n t e D a r w i n is t h e c a r t o o n ,
left, f r o m an 1 8 6 1 issue of B r i t a i n ' s
m a g a z i n e Punch Right, a light-
h e a r t e d l o o k at m i s o n e i s m by t h e
American humorist James Thurber,
w h o s e aunt (he w r o t e ) w a s afraid
t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y w a s "leaking all
over the place.''
33
