Organizational Behavior - Session 2

Foundations of
Individual Behavior
Lecturer: Do Tien Long
09 04 51 54 46
dotienlong_mc@yahoo.com.vn

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005

The changing nature & scope of
managing individuals

In the 21st century there are new demands for
an unpredictable future –
There is ever-increasing change
There are flatter, matrix-based structures
There are new work methods
More need to balance family demands & work
Increased consumerism

Organizational Behavior, Do Tien Long

Embracing diversity – an
organisation’s perspective

We ought to reflect the style, taste & opinions of
our consumers, who represent sexes, all colours
& creeds, all ages & disabilities.

Cultural diversity will strengthen the quality of the
company & will make us much more outward-
looking.

Barry Gibson, Littlewoods


Defining diversity

Relating & working with people who hold different
perspectives & views, bringing different qualities to the
workplace

Diversity consists of visible & non-visible differences
which will include sex, age, background, race, disability,
personality and workstyle.

Kandola & Fullerton


Managing diversity

Does not mean managers champion their own
values & try & shift other people’s values to
conform & match their own

Does mean encouraging individuality & at the
same time expecting group co-operation & team
work


How do individuals differ?

Ethnic origin Motivation
Physique Attitudes
Gender Personality
Early family Intelligence &
experiences abilities
Social & cultural Perception
factors
National culture

Personality

Defined as the combination of stable physical and
mental characteristics that give the individual his or
her identity

Including how one looks, thinks, acts and feels

Are the product of interacting genetic and
environmental influences


The big five personality dimensions

Personality Dimension Characteristics of a person scoring
positively on the dimension
1. Extraversion Outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive
2. Agreeableness Trusting, good natured, cooperative,
soft hearted
3. Conscientiousness Dependable, responsible, achievement
oriented, persistence
4. Emotional stability Relaxed, secure, unworried
5. Openness to experience Intellectual, imaginative, curious, broad
minded

Source: Organizational Behavior, 5th, Robert Kreitner & Angelo Kiniki


Personality and job performance

Studies showed that:
Generally Conscientiousness had the strongest positive
correlation with job and training performance
Extraversion associated with success for managers and
salesperson; stronger predictor of job performance than
Agreeableness
Being courteous, trusting, straightforeward, and soft-hearted
had smaller impact on job performance than being talkative,
active, and assertive
One shoes does not fit all people, one personality
does not fit all job situations


Personality and Self-concept

Self-concept is the view individuals have of
themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral
beings
Is a key personality dynamic in study of OB
3 related and crucial aspects are:
Self-esteem: one’s overall self-evaluation
Self-efficacy: a person’s belief about his or her chances of
successfully accomplishing a specific task
Self-monitoring: observing one ‘s own behavior and adapting
it to the situation


Conceptual model for individual
differences
The unique individual Forms of self-expression

Personality
traits
Attitudes

Self-concept Abilities
•Self-esteem
•Self-efficacy
•Self-monitoring
Emotions



Attitude

Is a predisposition to respond in a positive or
negative way to someone or something in
one’s environment
An attitude results in intended behavior; this
intention may or may not be carried out in a
given circumstance
In general, the more specific attitudes and
behaviors are, the stronger the relationship


Attitude

The cognitive component of an attitude reflects the
beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information a person
possesses
Beliefs represent ideas about someone or something
and the conclusions people draw about them
The effective component of an attitude is a specific
feeling regarding the personal impact of the
antecedent
The behavioral component is an intention to behave in
a certain way based on your specific feelings or
attitudes


Example of 3 components of
attitudes

ANTECEDENTS ATTITUDE RESULT

beliefs and create feelings that Intended
values influence behavior

“My job lacks “I don’t like my “I’m going to quit
responsibility” lob”. my job”.

“Job responsibility
is important”.



Attitudes and values

Values defined as broad preferences concerning
appropriate courses of action or outcomes. It tends to
influence to attitudes and behavior

Values reflect a person ‘s sense of right or wrong, or
what “ought” to be: “equal rights for all” or “people
should be treated with respect and dignity”

Sources of values are parents, friends, teachers and
external reference group


Attitudes

Provide a state of readiness or tendency to
respond in a particular way

Are learned through life and are embodied
within our socialisation process


Abilities and Emotion

Ability represents a broad and stable
characteristic responsible for a person’s
maximum physical or mental performance
Intellectual ability
Physical ability
Emotions are intense feelings that are directed
at someone or something


Is intelligence inherited

Nativists – believe intelligence is mostly inherited (nature)

Empiricists – believe that our environment shapes our
behaviour & mental abilities (nurture)

Galton suggests that genius runs in families & so
intelligence must be inherited


Emotional intelligence (EI)

Expands classical view of intelligence to include
emotional qualities of individuals

Can predict top performance

18 competencies including items such as empathy,
developing others, service orientation, change
catalyst, initiative, adaptability, self-confidence

Goldman


IQ vs. EQ

IQ EQ
Abilities of logic, Ability to recognize,
conculation, languege, understand, monitor the
and spaces emotions, and use it to
From birth develop thinking
Control reason Possible to grow
Little impact to others Can control the behavior of
the individual and others
Suit to managerial
responsibility Have influence to others
Suit to managerial relations


The Ability-Job Fit

Ability-Job
Employee’s Fit Job’s Ability
Abilities Requirements


What Is Perception, and Why Is It
Important?
Perception
A process by which ••People’s behavior is
People’s behavior is
individuals organize and based on their
based on their
interpret their sensory perception of what
perception of what
impressions in order to reality is, not on
reality is, not on
give meaning to their reality itself.
environment.
reality itself.
••The world as it is
The world as it is
perceived is the world
perceived is the world
that is behaviorally
that is behaviorally
important.
important.


Errors and Biases in Attributions
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to underestimate
the influence of external factors
and overestimate the influence
of internal factors when making
judgments about the behavior
of others.
In general, we
tend to blame the
person first, not
the situation.


Errors and Biases in Attributions
(cont’d)
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency for individuals to
attribute their own successes Thought: When student
to internal factors while gets an “A” on an exam,
they often say they studied
putting the blame for failures hard. But when they don’t
on external factors. do well, how does the self
serving bias come into
play?

Hint: Whose fault is it
usually when an exam is
“tough”?


Frequently Used Shortcuts in
Judging Others
Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the
basis of their interests, background, experience,
and attitudes.


Judging Others
Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression
about an individual on the
basis of a single characteristic

Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that
are affected by comparisons with other
people recently encountered who rank higher
or lower on the same characteristics


Judging Others

Projection
Attributing one’s own
characteristics to other
people.

Stereotyping
Judging someone on the
basis of one’s perception of
the group to which that
person belongs.


Specific Applications in
Organizations
Employment Interview
Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers’
judgments of applicants.
Performance Expectations
Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher
performance of employees reflects preconceived leader
expectations about employee capabilities.
Ethnic Profiling
A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is singled
out—typically on the basis of race or ethnicity—for intensive
inquiry, scrutinizing, or investigation.


Specific Applications in
Organizations (cont’d)

Performance Evaluations
Appraisals are often the subjective
(judgmental) perceptions of appraisers of
another employee’s job performance.


The Link Between Perceptions and
Individual Decision Making

Problem
A perceived discrepancy
between the current state of
affairs and a desired state. Perception
Perception
of the
of the
decision
decision
Decisions maker
maker
Choices made from among
alternatives developed from
data perceived as relevant.

Outcomes

Assumptions of the Rational
Decision-Making Model
Rational Decision- Model Assumptions
Model Assumptions
Making Model
•• Problem clarity
Problem clarity
Describes how
•• Known options
individuals should Known options
behave in order to •• Clear preferences
Clear preferences
maximize some •• Constant
outcome. Constant
preferences
preferences
•• No time or cost
No time or cost
constraints
constraints
•• Maximum payoff
Maximum payoff

Steps in the Rational Decision-
Making Model

1. Define the problem.
2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.


The Three Components of
Creativity
Creativity
The ability to produce
novel and useful ideas.

Three-Component
Model of Creativity
Proposition that individual
creativity requires expertise,
creative-thinking skills, and
intrinsic task motivation.

E X H I B I T 5–4
E X H I B I T 5–4


Creative thinking process

Creativity – the application of imaginative thought which
results in innovative solutions to many problems

1. Preparation
2. Incubation
3. Illumination
4. Verification

Wallas


How Are Decisions Actually Made
in Organizations?
Bounded Rationality
Individuals make decisions by constructing
simplified models that extract the essential
features from problems without capturing
all their complexity.


Common Biases and Errors

Overconfidence Bias
Believing too much in our own ability to make
good decisions
Anchoring Bias
Using early, first received information as the basis
for making subsequent judgments
Confirmation Bias
Using only the facts that support our decision.



Availability Bias
Using information that is most readily at hand.
Representative Bias
“Mixing apples with oranges”
Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying
to match it with a preexisting category using only
the facts that support our decision



Escalation of Commitment
In spite of new negative information, commitment actually
increases!

Randomness Error
Creating meaning out of random events

Hindsight Bias
Looking back, once the outcome has occurred, and believing
that you accurately predicted the outcome of an event


Intuition

Intuitive Decision Making
An unconscious process created out of distilled experience.
Conditions Favoring Intuitive Decision Making
A high level of uncertainty exists
There is little precedent to draw on
Variables are less scientifically predictable
“Facts” are limited
Facts don’t clearly point the way
Analytical data are of little use
Several plausible alternative solutions exist
Time is limited and pressing for the right decision


Individual Differences in Decision
Making
Personality
Aspects of conscientiousness and
escalation of commitment.
Self Esteem High self serving bias
Gender
Women tend to analyze decisions more
than men.


Organizational Constraints on
Decision Makers
Performance Evaluation
Evaluation criteria influence the choice of actions.
Reward Systems
Decision makers make action choices that are favored by the
organization.
Formal Regulations
Organizational rules and policies limit the alternative choices
of decision makers.
System-imposed Time Constraints
Organizations require decisions by specific deadlines.
Historical Precedents
Past decisions influence current decisions.


Cultural Differences in Decision
Making
Problems selected
Time orientation
Importance of logic and
rationality
Belief in the ability of
people to solve
problems
Preference for collective
decision making


Ethics in Decision Making

Ethics and National Culture
There are no global ethical
standards.
The ethical principles of
global organizations that
reflect and respect local
cultural norms are
necessary for high
standards and consistent
practices.


Ways to Improve Decision Making

1. Analyze the situation and adjust your decision making
style to fit the situation.
2. Be aware of biases and try to limit their impact.
3. Combine rational analysis with intuition to increase
decision-making effectiveness.
4. Don’t assume that your specific decision style is
appropriate to every situation.
5. Enhance personal creativity by looking for novel
solutions or seeing problems in new ways, and using
analogies.


Toward Reducing Bias and Errors

Focus on goals.
Clear goals make decision making easier and help to eliminate
options inconsistent with your interests.
Look for information that disconfirms beliefs.
Overtly considering ways we could be wrong challenges our
tendencies to think we’re smarter than we actually are.
Don’t try to create meaning out of random events.
Don’t attempt to create meaning out of coincidence.
Increase your options.
The number and diversity of alternatives generated increases
the chance of finding an outstanding one.
Source: S.P. Robbins, Decide & Conquer: Making Winning Decisions and Taking Control
of Your Life (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Financial Times/Prentice Hall, 2004), pp. 164–68.

Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.

Learning
Learning
••Involves change
Involves change
••Is relatively permanent
Is relatively permanent
••Is acquired through experience
Is acquired through experience


Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.

Key Concepts
Key Concepts
••Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus
••Unconditioned response
Unconditioned response
••Conditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
••Conditioned response
Conditioned response

Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

Key Concepts
Key Concepts
••Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
••Conditioned (learned) behavior
Conditioned (learned) behavior
••Reinforcement
Reinforcement


Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation
and direct experience.

Key Concepts
Key Concepts
••Attentional processes
Attentional processes
••Retention processes
Retention processes
••Motor reproduction processes
Motor reproduction processes
••Reinforcement processes
Reinforcement processes


Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.

Key Concepts
Key Concepts
••Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
••Some rewards are more effective than others.
Some rewards are more effective than others.
••The timing of reinforcement affects learning
The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
speed and permanence.


Types of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement
Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired
behavior occurs.
Punishment
Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable
behavior.
Extinction
Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its
cessation.


Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.


(cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a
fixed or constant number of
responses.


(cont’d)

Fixed-ratio


Reinforcement Theory

When professors give random pop quizzes or
take random attendance, students often
complain that they are adults, old enough to
make their own decisions, and should
therefore not be required to come to class.
How do you reconcile this argument with
what we know about reinforcement theory?
Discuss with a classmate.
What kind of reinforcement schedule are these
professors using? Would a different schedule be
preferable? If so, which one?

Reinforcement Theory

Recall and write down the three criteria that
indicate learning has occurred. Do you think
that learning, according to these criteria,
really occurs as a result of a one semester
college class? Discuss with a neighbor.

What kinds of things would you recommend to a
college professor to increase the likelihood of
students learning? Use theories from the text to
frame your answer.


Factors influencing the learning
process


The significance of learning for
managers

• Powerful processes which can lead to positive
outcomes, e.g. increased competence, understanding,
self esteem & morale

• Individuals who enjoy learning are more likely to be
flexible in times of constant change & therefore more
adaptable to organisational turbulence

• Growing evidence that a learning culture can affect an
organisation’s effectiveness


Components of the thinking
environment

Attention Encouragement
Incisive questions Feelings
Equality Information
Appreciation
Place
Ease
Diversity

Kline


Action learning sets

Small groups of people who all wish to
develop themselves through tackling live
issues

The sets provide opportunities for each
individual to report in turn on their actions and
reflect on the progress they have made


Applying theories of learning to
organisations
1. Self development – learning what to do, how
to be, learning the ropes
2. Development of others – personal
development, development of planned
learning events
3. Development of learning culture – policy
development


Develop a life plan

Think about where you are going/want to
go/want to achieve
Work out what it is that is important to you
Identify stability zones in your life
Involve your family/friends, take account of
their need
Set clear and realistic goals and priorities
Eliminate the less value aspects of your life


Organizational Behavior - Session 2

Recommandé

Recommandé

Contenu connexe

Tendances

Tendances (20)

En vedette

En vedette (20)

Similaire à Organizational Behavior - Session 2

Similaire à Organizational Behavior - Session 2 (20)

Dernier

Dernier (20)

Organizational Behavior - Session 2