1. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders Hangzhou, Nov 30th 2010
Xiaojuan Wang &Prof. Dr. Hora Tjitra
Grasp the Whole Picture of international assignees `s
Intercultural Sensitivity with Adjustment
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2. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Agenda
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1 Popularity of assignees in MNC 3
2 Gap between competence and adjustment literature 4
Literature review about the assignee`s competence (1)
A share-holder model
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Literature review about the assignee`s competence (2) 7
3 Adjustment literature: make the complete picture 9
Antecedents of adjustment and intercultural sensitivity 11
4 Assignee`s adjustment process 12
Mechanism(1): stress-coping approach 13
Mechanism(2): social learning approach 15
Mechanism(3): social network approach 19
5 A new model: Link assignee`s adjustment (mechanism) with
intercultural sensitivity
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3. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Popularity of assignees in MNC
• Increase in globalization has led to more and more
employees been sent on international assignment
(Hechanova,2003).
•The number of expatriates has actually dramatically
increased in the past 20 years (Harrison et al.,2004;
Harzing,2001).
•The use of expatriates will continue to expand in
21st century (Dolins,1999).
MNCs are increasingly using expatriates for
traditional control and expertise reasons,
facilitate entry into new markets, develop
international management competencies , manage
development and control subsidiaries
(Harzing,2001; Torbiorn, 1994) .
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4. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Gap between competence and
adjustment literature
• A successful assignee occupies
important role for MNC. Caligiuri
(1997) proposed that a successful
international assignee should be
evaluated in terms of completion of
assignment, cross-cultural
adjustment and performance.
• Researchers in studying the global
leadership competence are only
interested in the performance while
ignoring the assignee`s adjustment.
• Researchers in adjustment of assignees
propose that of the many factors affecting
the success of international assignments,
cross-cultural adjustment deserves the
attention from researchers (Shaffer et
al,1999;Shin, Morgeson & Campion
,2007;Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison,
Shaffer,& Luk,2005; Hechanova, Beehr,&
Christiansen,2003).
• It is necessary to get insight from
adjustment literature for the researchers
in studying global leadership.
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5. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Literature review about the assignee`s
competence (1): A share-holder model
• There are two problems with previous study in global competence of
international assignees.
• Firstly, the they ignore the role of leaders` own feeling and needs, which
in fact have close relationship with outcome variables like performance.
• We need to take a shareholder's perspective (Takuchi, 2010 ) when
examine Asian leaders intercultural sensitivity model.
• A new share-holder model linking competence and adjustment research is
needed.
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6. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
A share-holder model
Parent
company
themselvesSubsidiary
• That is to say, outcome variables we
care in Asian leadership competence
not only include the factors
facilitating leaders` performance in
meeting the needs of company at
home and subsidiary in host country
but also contains factors helping the
leaders satisfy their own needs .
Specifically, the leaders must feel
psychological well-being when
interaction with the general foreign
environment, when interaction with
others and in work-place (Black&
Stephen, 1989; Black & Mendenhall,
1991).
Assignees must satisfy the needs of the
three simultaneously to guarantee
effectiveness in HCNs
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7. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Literature review about the assignee`s
competence (2)
• Secondly, we have no idea of how the intercultural sensitivity develops
and the interaction of factors within the model and out of the model
when they are proposed out of the real work-place in cross-sectional
design.
– Factors in the model are not developed with the same speed or to the same level. It has
more practical and theoretical meaning if we know how the factors in competence
model develops and related with other variables.
• Therefore, we need to take a process orientation when examine the
competence model of assignees to supplement the previous studies with
trait orientation.
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8. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Literature review about the assignee`s
competence (2)
• In sum, it is more reasonable to
find out the factors not only
facilitating fulfilling the needs of
the company but that of oneself.
Besides, the process-orientation
of adjustment research design
provides a good chance to give a
vivid description of intercultural
sensitivity model.
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9. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Adjustment literature:
make the complete picture
• Research in this domain care about the expatriates ` psychological well-
being in general environment, during interaction with others and work-
place (Searle and Ward,1990; Black,1988;Black and Stephens,1989) and
propose that whether the expatriates adjust or not determined their
performance.
•Osman-Gani and Rockstuhl (2008) argue
that the expatriate needs to adapt culturally to
perform effectively on the job.
• Other meta-analyse (Bhaskar-
Shrinivas,Harrison,Shaffer,& Luk,2005;
Hechanova,Beehr,& Christiansen,2003) and
empirical studies (Nicholls et al.,2002;Kraimer
et al.,2001;Shay and Baack,2006) support it.
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10. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Adjustment literature:
make the complete picture
• Adjustment process of the expatriate managers shed light on how their
intercultural sensitivity develop, what it consists of , the interaction of the
factors and how it related with outside factors, which has implications for
practical issues.
– Since expatriate`s adjustment is necessary for their high performance, we
have good reason to argue that factors about intercultural sensitivity
influence adjustment, they impact their performance as well.
– In addition, what researchers find out about antecedents of expatriate`s
adjustment (Fenner and Selmer,2008; Kraimer and Wayne,2004; Peltokorpi ,
2008; Arthur & Bennett,1995) suggest component of ICS for assignees as
well.
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11. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Antecedents of adjustment
and intercultural sensitivity
 Studies that include individual differences variables related with ICS demographic variables
such as age or gender(Shaffer and Hrrison,1998) ,previous international experiences (Black
and Gregersen,1991) and personal flexibility (Arthur and Bennet,1995), need for closure
(Nicholls, Rothstein and Bourne,2002), cultural intelligence and cultural competences
(Earley & Ang, 2003; Shaffer et al.,2003), various traits (Shaffer et al., 2006), personalities
(Ones and Viswesvaran, 1997; Ward et al., 2004;Shaffer,et al.,2003), attitudes (e.g. Shaffer et
al., 2006), competences (e.g. Johnson et al., 2006), and abilities and skills (e.g. Black &
Mendenhall, 1990; Thomas, 2006; Thomas & Fitzsimmons, 2008).
 Factors impact ICS Factors impact adjustment
 The findings justify that we should take assignees` adjustment and competence together
and it is not reasonable to separate them apart.
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12. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Assignee`s adjustment process
• Oberg (1960) proposed a most discussed
U-curve model of adjustment overtime.
• However, Black and Mendenhall (1991)
thought the model is confused by many
variables mixing together. They use an
social learning theory perspective on the
adjustment process.
• Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. (2005) examined
the trajectory of adjustment overtime ,
proposed a “S” model.
• Recently, Friedman et al. (2009) found
that adjustment may not always be a
single continuous process but instead may
sometimes be a discontinuous process of
gains and losses–repeated cycles of
confusion and clarity.
Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. (2005)
It is not enough to find the factors influencing assignee`s adjustment and
competence. More importantly, we should know the how the factors
develop and the interaction of different factors with other contextual
variables.
Friedman et al.(2009) 12

13. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Mechanism(1): stress-coping approach
• Studies with this approach emphasize
the stress and difficulty working and
living in new cultural background
and examine the cope strategies that
the newcomer`s use to overcome the
problems in HCNs.
• “stress is defined by many
variables and processes that are
reflected in the person's appraisal
of a relationship with the
environment as relevant to well-
being and taxing or exceeding his
or her resources “(Lazarus et
al.,1985) .
• Coping means individuals “ manage
environmental internal demands, and
conflicts among them, which tax or
exceed a person`s resources ”
(Folkman, et al., 1986).
• Coping strategies serve to achieve a
fit between self and environment
with regard to stressors and feelings
of stresses (Berry, 1997;Zimnermann,
Holman & Sparrow, 2003;Stahl, 2000;
Stahl & Caligiuri,2005; Breiden et al.,
2006).
Breiden et al.(2006)
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14. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Mechanism(1): stress-coping approach
• The researchers of studying adjustment look for strategies the newcomers use for
solving cultural problems.
– With few exceptions, they prefer context over individual traits in explaining adjustment
and propose the latter as the moderate variables.
• Further study should explore the joint effects of individual difference and strategies
on the outcome variables.
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Since preferred coping strategies is
related with personality differences and
other characteristics like cultural values
(Connor-Smith & Flachsbart, 2007; Bardi &
Guerra ,2010) , we have good reason to
propose that the same factors in ICS may
have different effects for adjustment and
performance using different strategies.
Bardi & Guerra, 2010

15. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Mechanism(2): social learning theory
• The second approach in explaining adjustment of the managers in HCNs is social
learning theory (Caligiuri,2000; Searle & Ward,1990; Black & Mendenhall,1991).
– Uncertainty is reduced because expatriates will learn appropriate behaviors through
interaction with and observation of HCNs.
• Black and Mendenhall (1991) argued that SLT provides a theoretical explanation
of why in general cross-cultural adjustment would exhibit a U-curve pattern.
The more HCNs the expatriate interacts with and
the more diverse these contacts are, the greater the
repertoire of acceptable behaviors he or she will
have to draw on (Caligiuri,2000).
Other researchers explain how the individuals
develop ICS with the similar assumption (Hammer,
Bennett & Wiseman,2003; Gong & Fan , 2006;
Paige, et al., 2003; Friedman et al., 2009), although
they don`t argue it directly.
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16. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Mechanism(2): social learning
approach
•Bennett (1986) proposed six distinct kinds of experience spread
across the continuum from ethnocentrism and ethnorelativism .
•As individuals ` ability to experience cultural difference in more and more
sophisticated way, they are better at interacting with the people in the foreign
culture , have less problems in adjustment and more competent in the work-
place.
Hammer et al. (2003)
Researchers in this orientation suggest that the
factors of ICS are developmental. It carries important
meaning for training if we are able to find what factors
are more changeable than other. Accordingly, we view
the more stable ones as criteria for selection.
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17. Comparison of the two orientation
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stress-cope orientation social learning orientation
Start from combination of emotion and
cognition.
Start from human`s adaption to the
new environment .
focus on the impact of the change in
life and work on originate mental
framework and routines formed during
socialization.
Focus on modifying the behavior or
acquiring necessitous skills.
Researchers with this approach are
negative about the outcome at least
when the expatriate enter into new
environment.
Researchers are more optimistic about
the human`s ability to learn.

18. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Integration of the two orientation
• They are person-centered although the researchers with the first approach
propose that they care about the fit between individual and environment.
– Berry (1997) argued the two approach are not contradictive by indentifying three
outcomes when the immigrant enter to new culture, namely, “behavioral shifts”,
“acculturative stress”, and ”psychopathology”, which were determined by the extent of
difficulty of adjustment.
• Researchers in both orientation realize and prove the importance of
support from the HCNs in newcomer`s adjustment, but they don`t
analyze the support of the HCNs and stakeholders systematically.
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19. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Mechanism(3): social network approach
• The third one used in adjustment literature is social capital theory (Adler
& Kwon,2002; Lin,2001).
– Previous studies using stress-coping and social learning orientation have found the role
of support from organization, subsidiaries , family and supervisors in adjustment and
performance (Kraimer, et at., 2001; Kraimer & Wayne, 2004; Breiden, et al., 2006; Verma,
et al., 2009; Caligiuri, 2000).
Osman-Gani and Rockstuhl (2008)
describes the relationships that an
expatriate has with other people in
his or her network as direct channels
for the flow of social resources in the
form of informational, instrumental,
feedback, and emotional support.
Liu and Shaffer(2005) proposed that the basic
elements of social capital are conceptualized in
terms of social resources, contact opportunities,
social structure, trust, norms, purposive actions
and networks (friends, acquaintances,
colleagues and members) .
Liu & Shaffer(2005)
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20. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Mechanism(3): social network approach
• Other scholars investigate how social network and social capital of expatriates
influence the expatriate’s cross-spanning activity, different types of performance,
adjustment and job (Au & Fukuda,2002; Liu & Shaffer, 2005; Wang,2002; Wang &
Kanungo, 2004;Wang & Nayir, 2006).
– For example, Wang and Nayir(2006) found the network patterns the network is important for the
European expatriates in China to psychologically function well in the local environment.
Takeuchi (2010) further broadens the scope
beyond social network within subsidiaries
and proposes a multiple stakeholder view,
focusing on how expatriate adjustment is
affected by and can affect three key
stakeholders: family , host country national
and parent organization. He thinks that
previous studies are predominantly
“expatriate-centric” and has neglected other
“stakeholders” .
Takeuchi (2010)
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21. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Mechanism(3): social network approach
• Compared with the other two approaches, social network approach put
emphasis on the role of context related variable in expatriate leader`s
adjustment and performance.
• Some researcher try to find the individual difference of ability in building
and using social network for expatriate effectiveness.
– Osman-Gani and Rockstuhl (2008) identify the antecedents of social network
such as neuroticism, extroversion, openness, self-efficacy and mega-cognition.
– Farh et al. (2010) presented a five-stage process model to show how
expatriates form adjustment through facilitating support ties in a culturally
unfamiliar context and provide propositions about how the progression of
each stage is influenced by various expatriate-,actor-,and context-related
factors.
• Research in this orientation tells us that ICS doesn`t guarantee assignee`s
adjustment and performance, either function alone without interaction with
contextual factors. Therefore, when we examine the issue, we must put the
abstractive factor in the realistic context to understand their importance.
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22. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Comparison of the three orientation
Approach stress-coping approach social learning
theory
social network
approach
Basic assumption Individual suffer stress in new
environment because of
uncertainty and anxiety,
instinctively to reduce the
negative emotion
Individual needs to learn in
order to adjust to the new
environment.
Individuals are social
beings, depending on each
others. They need
resources and information
to survive and develop.
Focus Individual emotion Individual behavior Social support
Individual
variables
Perceptional skills, ICS, tolerance
to ambiguity, dual identity ,
coping strategies, flexibility
Learning orientation,
extraversion
Relational skills, flexibility,
emotional stability,
openness
Important others Support from parent
organization, subsidiaries,
family(group level )
(Individual level) Coworkers, subordinates,
supervisors (individual
level)
Studies Berry (1997); Zimnermann,
Holman & Sparrow ( 2003) ;Stahl,
(2000) ; Stahl & Caligiuri (2005) ;
Breiden et al.( 2006)
Caligiuri (2000); Searle &
Ward(1990); Black &
Mendenhall (1991);
Hammer, Bennett &
Wiseman (2003); Gong &
Fan (2006)
Au & Fukuda (2002) ; Liu &
Shaffer (2005) ; Wang
(2002); Wang & Kanungo,
(2004);Wang & Nayir (2006)
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23. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
A new model: Link assignee`s adjustment
(mechanism) with intercultural sensitivity
• The most critical issues lies in how the factors included in intercultural
sensitivity interacted with other contextual variables and determine the
assignee`s adjustment and performance as time goes by.
Critical factors:
Perceptional
skills; Self-
efficacy; cultural
empathy;
learning
orientation et al.
Performance(task
related; context
related; self-rated;
supervisor rated);
job satisfaction;
overturn; OCB
Adjustment:
General
adjustment;
interactional
adjustment; work
adjustment
LMX
POS
Family
factors
TMX
Hypothesized model
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24. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Research Partners:
An applied research collaboration supported by the Human Capital Leadership
Institute (Singapore) with the objective to derive a model for Asian leaders, which will
lead to systematic global leadership development programs with Asian
characteristics.
Built on our previous researches on Chinese and Indonesian intercultural sensitivity,
we continue in this study by elaborating the cross-cultural experiences of the
Chinese, Indonesian and Singaporean international assignees and their respective
local co-workers in China and Indonesia. Intercultural sensitivity has been widely
accepted as one of the most significant element of global competencies and one of
the strongest predictor for global leaders and managers accomplishments.
The principal investigators of the project are Dr. Hora Tjitra, Dr. Hana Panggabean,
and the research team of the the Zhejiang University (Hangzhou, China), Zhejiang
University of Technology (Hangzhou, China) and the Atma Jaya Indonesia Catholic
University (Jakarta, Indonesia).
Funding Partner:
Zhejiang University
China
www.zju.edu.cn
Zhejiang University of Technology
China
www.zjut.edu.cn
Atma Jaya Catholic University
Indonesia
www.atmajaya.ac.id
Human Capital Leadership Institute
Singapore
www.smu.edu.sg
Hora Tjitra
Hana Panggabean
Juliana Murniati
Quan HEJiewei ZHENG
Chaohui ZHANGTeng SHENTU Jia ZHOU
Xiaojuan WANG
Dan ZHAOXixie ZHANG
Sebastian Partogi Yuanbo LIU Tayyibah Mushtaq
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25. Thank You
Contact us via …
Mail: htjitra@zju.edu.cn
Follow: twitter@htjitra
Website: http://sinau.me/hcli
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