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Family Relationships and Adolescent Development
- 1. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILIES CHAPTER 4
- 2. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AT ADOLESCENCE The Adolescent’s Parents at Midlife Parents have increased concern about their bodies, physical attractiveness, and their sexual appeal Parents are beginning to feel that the possibilities for change are limited Most adults reach their occupational plateau
- 3. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AT ADOLESCENCE Changes in Family Needs and Functions Changes in the family as a unit Changes in economic circumstances Changes in its relationship to other social institutions Changes in its functions
- 4. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AT ADOLESCENCE Transformations in Family Relations Adolescents begin to play a more forceful role in the family The adolescent’s biological and cognitive maturation play a role in unbalancing the family system during early adolescence
- 5. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Parenting Styles and Their Effects Parent-adolescent relationships impact the adolescent, but there is also an interaction with genetic factors in influencing behavior and development Parental responsiveness=how the parent responds to the child’s needs in an accepting, supportive manner
- 6. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Parenting Styles and Their Effects Parental demandingness=how the parent expects and demands mature, responsible behavior from the child Authoritative parents are warm but firm Authoritarian parents place a high value on obedience and conformity
- 7. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Parenting Styles and Their Effects Indulgent parents behave in an accepting, benign, and somewhat more passive way Indifferent parents try to minimize the time and energy that they must devote to interacting with their child
- 8. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Adolescents who are temperamentally different are affected in different ways by the same parenting
- 9. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Ethnic Differences in Parenting Practices Authoritative parenting is less prevalent among African-American, Asian-American, or Hispanic-American families than among white families Authoritarian parenting is more prevalent among ethnic minority than among white families
- 10. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Autonomy and Attachment in the Adolescent’s Family Adolescents who are permitted to assert their own opinions within a family context that is secure and loving, develop higher self-esteem and more mature coping abilities
- 11. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Autonomy and Attachment in the Adolescent’s Family Adolescents whose autonomy is squelched, are at risk for developing feelings of depression Adolescents who do not feel connected are more likely than their peers to develop behavior problems
- 12. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Adolescents’ Relationships with Siblings More egalitarian, nurturant and socially supportive especially with younger siblings It can become more distant and less emotionally intense and marked by conflict and rivalry
- 13. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Behavioral Genetics and Adolescent Development Which traits are inherited or environmentally determined and how do these factors interact? Genetic factors strongly influence aggression, antisocial behavior, and delinquency, emotional distress, i.e. risk for suicide and depressed mood
- 14. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Behavioral Genetics and Adolescent Development adolescent competence, self-image, intelligence, self-perceptions of scholastic competence, athletic competence, physical appearance, social competence, and general self- worth are moderately heritable
- 15. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display THE ADOLESCENT’S FAMILY IN A CHANGING SOCIETY Seventy-five percent of all married women with adolescent children are employed; more than forty-five percent work full-time
- 16. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display THE ADOLESCENT’S FAMILY IN A CHANGING SOCIETY A sizable percentage of youngsters will spend time in a single-parent household from birth Nearly 25 percent of all adolescents grow up in poor families
- 17. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display The proportion of adolescents living at various income levels
- 18. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND THE CHANGING FAMILY Adolescents, Divorce, and Single Parent Families The number of parents present in the adolescent’s house matters far less than the quality of the relationships the young person has with the important adults in his or her life
- 19. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND THE CHANGING FAMILY The Specific Impact of Marital Conflict Marital conflict more adversely affects the adolescent when the conflict disrupts the quality of the parent-child relationship The Longer-Term Effects of Divorce Individuals whose parents divorce during preadolescence and adolescence often demonstrate adjustment difficulties later
- 20. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display The divorce rate rose dramatically between 1960 and 1980 but has more or less leveled off since then
- 21. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND THE CHANGING FAMILY Custody, Contact, and Conflict following Divorce It is the nature of the relationship between the adolescent’s divorced parents, and not which one he or she lives with, that makes a difference
- 22. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display A long-term study of British individuals and the effects of divorce on the development of emotional problems– see Figure 4.8 in text – Cherlin et al, 1998
- 23. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND THE CHANGING FAMILY Remarriage Adolescents growing up in stepfamilies— especially if the remarriage occurred during early adolescence rather than childhood-- often have more problems than their peers
- 24. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND THE CHANGING FAMILY Parental Employment and Adolescent Adjustment Maternal employment during adolescence has quite positive effects on daughters but more mixed or negligible effects on sons, especially in middle-class and professional families
- 25. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT AND THE CHANGING FAMILY Economic Stress and Poverty Families fare better when they have adequate sources of social support and strong ties to religious institutions
- 26. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display THE IMPORTANCE OF THE FAMILY IN ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Adolescents who feel that their parents or guardians are “there” for them – caring, involved, and accepting – are healthier, happier, and more competent than their peers
Notes de l'éditeur
- Contrary to popular stereotypes, adolescents and their parents tend to remain close and do see eye to eye on a variety of issues Share similar values Parents who believe in negative stereotypes of adolescent behavior tend to have more negative relationships with their adolescent children, and this is known as “self-fulfilling prophecy” Although most people believe there is a generation gap, holding of different values between adolescents and adults; not the case When sharp differences exist, they are generally around the area of personal tastes such as music and dress, rather than fundamental attitudes and values One potential source of conflict between adolescents and adults is the different ways in which they define the same issues For example, making sure that there rooms are tidy is something that parents believe is their own jurisdiction, where teenagers likely define their rooms as their own private space, and decisions about neatness as matters of personal choice Other topics that fall under personal choice could include styles of dress or speech Smetana believes that parents and teens tend to clash over the definitions of stress, and in whose jurisdiction the issue falls
- Adolescence is, for both parents and their teens, a period of reorganization and change Family systems theorists believe that families must adapt to the transformations in roles of each of their members Families move through stages and phases in their development that make up a family life cycle; so just as individuals have a life cycle, so do families Because of changes in the adolescents, the entire family system, especially parents, must adjust, with resultant changes in family functions and needs And this emergence of adolescence for the youngster is generally coinciding with the period of midlife for the parents For many parents, this is a period of crisis, at least temporarily For many adults, midlife is a period of heightened introspection and self-evaluation Because many parents are in the period of midlife (35-45) when their child reaches adolescence, the so called midlife crisis may coincide with the adolescent identity crisis At midlife, parents must contrast their adolescent hopes and dreams with what they have achieved thus far as adults Parents have increased concern about their bodies, physical attractiveness, and their sexual appeal Parents are beginning to feel that the possibilities for change are limited Most adults reach their occupational plateau In general, parents who have strong interests outside the family and who have a positive sense of self esteem tend to cope better with the changes of their adolescents than do other parents The belief than mental health declines when adolescents leave home, what is sometimes called “the empty nest phenomenon” is a myth, especially among mothers And adolescence presents a challenge to most families The adolescent’s desire for autonomy in particular may be especially stressful for parents. In families with middle-aged adults, however, adjusting to adolescence may take more of a toll on the mental health of parents than on the mental health of adolescents. Parents who are deeply involved in work outside the home or who have an especially happy marriage may be buffered against some of these negative consequences, however, whereas single mothers may be especially vulnerable to these effects.
- At different points in the family life cycle, the family members have different needs and functions Changes in the family as a unit Changes in economic circumstances Changes in its relationship to other social institutions Changes in its functions One of the most important changes that the family undergoes during the period of adolescence is financial All parents are burdened with maintaining their adolescent’s clothing and school/activity related expenses and may also face the burden of saving for college Friction in the family may also arise from perceptions that the adolescent is more capable of shouldering a greater portion of the family’s obligations The financial demands placed on parents in the sandwich generation, that is, they’re sandwiched between their adolescent children and their aging parents, also requires considerable adjustment So often at midlife, parents are taking care of their their teens and younger children and also helping their parents The financial demands placed on parents in the “sandwich generation” (that is, sandwiched between their adolescent children and their aging parents) require considerable adjustment. Adolescents are more in need of support than nurturance, of guidance more than protection, of direction more than socialization.
- Early adolescence marks the shift of the adolescent’s desire for a more egalitarian role in the family structure As a result, it is during early adolescence that we observe the most disruption in the family Adolescents begin to play a more forceful role in the family The adolescent’s biological and cognitive maturation play a role in unbalancing the family system during early adolescence Although puberty has often been associated with diminished closeness and physical affection, this type of distancing diminishes during late adolescence When examining the role of gender between the parent and the adolescent, the gender of the parent with whom the parent interacts seems to be the most influential factor in the relationship Adolescents, both boys and girls, relate to mothers and fathers differently, with adolescents feeling more connected to their mothers than to their fathers Now, most of the research on changes in family relations at adolescence have been focused on first born children I wonder if the results would differ in studies of later born Several researchers have demonstrated that family relationships change during puberty, with conflict between adolescents and their parents increasing slightly, and closeness between adolescents and their parents diminishing. Conflicts between teenagers and parents tend to be resolved not through compromise but through submission (i.e., giving in) or disengagement (i.e., walking away), neither of which enhances the quality of their relationship. Food for Thought: Most research on changes in family relations at adolescence has been focused on first-born children. Do you think the results would differ in studies of later-borns?
- Two aspects of parents’ behavior their children’s behavior have been shown to influence adolescent development These are parental responsiveness and parental demandingness Parent-adolescent relationships impact the adolescent, but there is also an interaction with genetic factors in influencing behavior and development Parental responsiveness=how the parent responds to the child’s needs in an accepting, supportive manner In addition, there seems to be an interaction between genetic factors and behavior
- Parental demandingness=how the parent expects and demands mature, responsible behavior from the child Authoritative parents are warm but firm Authoritarian parents place a high value on obedience and conformity Adolescents raised in authoritative homes are more responsible, more self-assured, more adaptive, more creative, more curious, more socially skilled, and more successful in school. Adolescents raised in authoritarian homes, in contrast, are more dependent, more passive, less socially adept, less self-assured, and less intellectually curious. These results seem to be consistent with adolescents from a variety of ethnic backgrounds So there must be a balance of autonomy and structure This kind of balance helps adolescents to develop healthy relationships with their peers and with their families Family discussions where rules, decisions, and boundaries are explained also help the child to understand social systems and relationships, and ultimately, those kids are going to become better parents themselves
- Adolescents raised in indulgent households are often less mature, more irresponsible, more conforming to their peers, and less able to assume positions of leadership. Adolescents raised in indifferent homes are often impulsive and more likely to be involved in delinquent behavior and in precocious experiments with sex, drugs, and alcohol. So there must be a balance of autonomy and structure This kind of balance helps adolescents to develop healthy relationships with their peers and with their families Family discussions where rules, decisions, and boundaries are explained also help the child to understand social systems and relationships, and ultimately, those kids are going to become better parents themselves
- When considering the impact of various kinds of parenting styles on adolescent development, you must keep in mind that socialization of the adolescent is really a two-way street It is product of both how the parent influences the adolescent, and how the adolescent influences the parent Both parenting styles and genetic factors influence adolescent development So parenting styles are going to influence different personality types in different ways, so we have to be careful in making broad generalizations This graph shows us the differential effects of parenting style according to the adolescent’s temperament So the blue line reflects adolescents high in impulsivity, and the red line reflects adolescents low in impulsivity Impulsive kids tend to have higher levels of delinquency in general, where kids who are low in impulsivity tend to have lower levels of delinquency in general And the kids with less impulsivity tend to have less differential, or that is, the level of maternal control matters less, so they are quite similar in their behavior regardless of whether there is a high level of maternal control or a lower level Kids who are impulsive tend to have a very marked interaction between parenting style and delinquency So when there is low maternal control, impulsive adolescents will tend to demonstrate high rates of delinquency So delinqency is almost linearly decreased among impulsive adolescents when mothers exhibit higher levels of control
- The research shows that there are ethnic differences in parenting practices, It’s important to distinguish between the prevalence of parenting styles in different populations and the effect of different styles In general, Authoritative parenting is less prevalent among African-American, Asian-American, or Hispanic-American families than among white families Authoritarian parenting is more prevalent among ethnic minority than among white families Although the research is still open to confirmation, some research suggests that authoritarian parenting is more prevalent among ethnic minority than among white families By contrast, their may be finer distinctions between what constitutes authoritative parenting than these research categories resolve
- Studies of parent-adolescent relationships show that the healthiest families are those that permit the adolescent to develop a sense of autonomy while staying emotionally attached to the family This is most common when relationships between parents and adolescents are characterized by problem solving and empathy on the part of parents (enabling interactions) rather than by constraining interactions (that is,distracting or judging) So Adolescents who are permitted to assert their own opinions within a family context that is secure and loving, develop higher self-esteem and more mature coping abilities
- So, considering some of the relationships between autonomy and attachment, we see Adolescents whose autonomy is squelched, are at risk for developing feelings of depression Adolescents who do not feel connected are more likely than their peers to develop behavior problems So that’s a lack of attachment in the family So even though adolescents are getting older and they want more autonomy, it is a time where family connections are very, very important and need to be maintained Food for Thought: What makes parents choose the sort of parenting they use? Why are some parents authoritative but others not?
- Now let’s consider adolescent’s relationships with their siblings Siblings can learn a great deal from one another, both positive and negative Over the course of adolescences, adolescents’ relationships with siblings tend to become more equal, but more distant, less influential and less emotionally intense More egalitarian, nurturant and socially supportive especially with younger siblings It can become more distant and less emotionally intense and marked by conflict and rivalry Siblings relationships improve as adolescents move into adulthood So moving through adolescence they may distance themselves a bit, and become less attached But in later adolescence and moving into adulthood they tend to reconnect In general, adolescents’ relationships with parents are different from those with parents, or with friends A considerable amount of research indicates that the quality of the parent-adolescent relationship influences the quality of relations among adolescent brothers and sisters, which in turn influences adolescents’ relationships with peers. There seems to be considerable stability in sibling relationships over time, with those who were relative close during childhood remaining close throughout adulthood
- Research suggests that adolescents are quite dissimilar from their brothers and sisters, despite the strong genetic and environmental influences that they have in common Behavioral genetics distinguishes between two types of environmental influences Shared environmental influences are factors in the environment that individuals, such as siblings, have in common and that make them similar in personality and behavior. Nonshared environmental influences are factors in the environments of individuals that are not similar and that, as a consequence, make them different from one another. Research suggests that aggression, antisocial behavior, delinquency, and emotional distress are all strongly influenced by genetic factors And this is why kids going through the same family could have quite different experiences
- So now we can better understand how siblings can be so different Studies of siblings find that brothers and sisters, who share many genes in common, are often very different. These differences are attributed to the influence of nonshared environmental factors. Siblings often differ from one another because they experience the family differently That is, interactions with mom and dad, and their environment, school, family, friends differently In addition, parents often treat siblings differently Not necessarily a bad thing, because it allows them to see themselves as unique and thus lessens siblling rivalry When siblings see themselves as too much alike, they sometimes tend to differentiate themselves deliberately, a process known as “sibling deidentification”
- Four of the most important changes that have occurred among American families with adolescents are the increase in the rate of divorce, the increase in the prevalence of single-parent households, the increased participation of mothers in the labor force, and the increase in the proportion of families living in poverty.
- Although divorce is generally associated with short-term difficulties for the adolescent, several studies show that at least some of the differences between adolescents from divorced versus nondivorced homes were present before the parents divorced.
- Although divorce is generally associated with short-term difficulties for the adolescent, several studies show that at least some of the differences between adolescents from divorced versus nondivorced homes were present before the parents divorced.
- For girls, financial difficulty is likely to lead to more demands for maturity and increased responsibility around the house (perhaps to take over some of mother’s duties while she works or looks for employment). For boys, in contrast, disruptions in family finances seem to lead to more frequent conflict, especially with fathers.