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AP® Environmental Science
                                     2004 Scoring Guidelines




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AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                          Question 1

(a) On the basis of the article above, indicate one human activity that releases mercury into the
    environment. Describe how mercury is transported from that source and enters aquatic systems, often
    hundreds of miles away.

(3 points maximum out of a possible 4)

1 point for naming “the burning of coal” as the human activity that releases mercury into the environment, as
mentioned in the document.

         • Only the first type of fossil fuel indicated in the answer will be considered. If the wrong source is
           named (e.g., petroleum products) students will not earn any points in part (a).
         • “Fossil fuel” alone, while not wrong, is unacceptable because mercury is a contaminant primarily in
           coal, and the document directs the student’s attention to it.
         • If students use “power plants/industry,” they must indicate that coal is used.

1 point for describing how mercury is transported.

         • Answers related to air transport should indicate the movement of air, wind, or air currents, since
           “goes into the air” does not include the idea of “transport.”
         • A reference to incorporation of the atmospheric mercury into the water cycle may be used to earn this
           point, but cannot be counted as the “aquatic systems entry” point without further elaboration.
         • A student who uses “coal washing” at the power plant as the actual source of mercury pollution must
           describe how the water is transported from that site.

1 point for describing how mercury enters aquatic systems from the source described above.

    “Aquatic systems” can include the abiotic and/or the biotic components of the system.
     If students discuss soil as an entry point, they must explain how mercury gets from soil
     to water (e.g., by erosion or leaching). Examples of acceptable answers are:

         •   falls as dry particles into water or onto soil
         •   falls with rain/precipitation into water or onto soil
         •   enters water and becomes incorporated into food chains
         •   could enter groundwater/surface water from the coal-washing process
         •   could enter streams and rivers from groundwater

1 possible elaboration point for an answer that indicates an unusual depth of knowledge about the subject, by making
points such as:

         • three states of mercury—particulate, elemental, and an oxidized form
         • microorganisms in the soil and water can convert inorganic mercury into an organic form, methyl
           mercury, in which form it can readily enter food chains




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                                                                 2
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 1 (cont’d.)

(b) Describe TWO ways that the amount of mercury released into the environment from the source in part
    (a) could be reduced.

(2 points maximum)

Note: If a student mentions “coal” in both parts of this answer, and if no specific “fossil fuel” was given in part (a)
above, the student may earn the point for “the burning of coal” in part (a) if the answer is otherwise satisfactory.

1 point each for describing two of the methods given below.

         • Only the first two answers will be considered.
         • Simply naming a method is not enough; the answer should describe how this would result in a decrease
           in mercury by providing concrete examples, developing a rationale, or describing a process.
         • Only one point will be earned for multiple examples of the same argument, e.g. solar and wind energy as
           alternatives to coal.

    Reduce the amount or change the type of fossil fuel burned

         • burn higher-rank coals but with equivalent (or lower) mercury content, thereby generating more BTUs
           per unit amount of coal
         • burn coal with equivalent or better rank, but with lower mercury levels
         • use another kind of fossil fuel with lower mercury content, such as natural gas
         • switch to a power-generating system (wind, solar, hydroelectric, etc.) that has a much lower or non-
           existent mercury contamination component
         • make furnaces burn more efficiently (any of a variety of methods)

    Pre-combustion removal of mercury:

         • wash the coal (physical density separation or chemical cleaning)

    Post-combustion removal of mercury

         • use sorbents such as activated carbon, calcium, sodium tetrasulfide, or silicates which convert the
           gaseous mercury into an insoluble, thermally stable solid compound that can then be removed by
           using electrostatic precipitation, wet scrubbers, baghouse, fabric filter, or other particulate removal
           device (gaseous mercury must be converted before any of these other control methods can be
           effective, so “scrubbing” or “filtering” alone is not enough)
         • use catalyst systems that oxidize elemental mercury, which can then be removed, by wet lime or
           limestone flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems
         • cool the flue gas and capture fly ash




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                                                                 3
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 1 (cont’d.)

    Other

         • enforce the Clean Air Act, stop exempting utilities from mercury control regulations, obtain
           international agreements, enact legislation to require controls, or the like (must include discussion of
           any of these chosen)
         • use tax incentives or other means of encouraging voluntary reductions (must include discussion)
         • conserve energy, reduce consumer demand, or the like (must include discussion)


(c) Explain why there are greater health risks associated with eating large predatory fish, such as tuna and
    sea bass, than from eating small nonpredatory fish.

(3 points maximum)

1 point for discussing why there would be more mercury in predatory vs. nonpredatory fish.

    This explanation should be based on the idea of bioaccumulation/biomagnification and
    may include concepts such as:
         • food chains or webs/trophic levels
         • mercury transfers to higher trophic levels
         • the concentration of mercury increases in higher trophic levels

1 point may be earned for discussing the relationship of size, long lifespan, and the accumulation of mercury.

    For example: over the course of a lifetime, older fish have had more time to accumulate significant amounts of
    mercury, regardless of their trophic level.

    This point also could be earned for a discussion of absorption through the skin/gills as it is related to the
    accumulation of mercury over a longer lifetime.

1 elaboration point is possible for an in-depth explanation of bioaccumulation/ biomagnification, or for a good
explanation of one or more of the following topics:

        • mercury is stored in fat/muscle and cannot be removed easily by body enzymes
        • mercury can enter food chains by being converted to methyl mercury [no credit earned here if already
          earned in part (a)]
        • explains the difference between bioaccumulation and biomagnification




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                                                                 4
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 1 (cont’d.)

(d) Identify a toxic metal other than mercury that has a negative impact on human health and describe how it
    is introduced into the environment. Describe an acute sublethal effect on humans that results from
    exposure to this metal.

(3 points maximum) Consider only the first metal and the first effect given.

1 point for naming a toxic metal, 1 point for describing how it is introduced into the environment, and 1 point for
describing a sublethal effect on humans. If no toxic metal was identified, no points could be earned in this part.
(Lead was the most common answer given; following is the rubric used for lead. Many other metals could be used to
earn credit in this part.)


    How Lead Is Introduced
                                                   Effects of Lead on Human Health
    (read all for a correct answer)
    Industry:                                      abdominal pain
    mining and refining processes                  adrenal/liver/kidney dysfunction
    Consumer goods:                                allergies
    batteries                                      anxiety
    cigarette smoke                                autism
    coal combustion                                birth defects/toxic to the fetus
    colored inks                                   blindness
    cosmetics                                      bones/joint pain and weakness/arthritis
    electronics                                    cardiovascular disease
    firing ranges/bullets                          colic
    food (esp. candy)                              constipation
    gasoline additives                             convulsions
    hair dyes                                      depression
    insecticides                                   dizziness/headache/fatigue/nausea
    paint                                          dyslexia
    pottery glazes                                 epilepsy
    plumbing                                       GI symptoms
    radiator repair shops                          gout
    TV picture tube                                hallucination/mood swings/nightmares/poor
    toothpaste                                         concentration/psychosis
    volcanic eruptions                             hyperactivity
    window blinds                                  immune system depression
    wine                                           impotence




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                                                                 5
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                     2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                               Question 1 (cont’d.)


                       Effects of Lead on Human Health (cont’d.)

                       menstrual problems
                       multiple sclerosis
                       muscular dystrophy
                       neurological effects/brain development and function/
                            hostility/hypertension/learning disorders/mental
                            retardation/numbness
                       Parkinson’s disease
                       prostate enlargement
                       red blood cell/anemia/enzyme function
                       restlessness
                       stroke




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                                                            6
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                          Question 2

(a) Assuming that the existing power plant can operate at full capacity for 8,000 hours/yr, how many kWh
    of electrical energy can be produced by the plant in a year?

(2 points)

1 point for correct setup.
1 point for correctly calculating the amount of electricity generated per year.
    Answer must show calculations.
    Student must correctly convert MW to kW.
    Points may be earned if the student writes the answer as a word problem.
    No points earned without showing or clearly stating calculations.
    Solutions to the question that use alternate setups and arrive at a correct answer will also earn points.

             12 MW = 12,000 kW or 1.2 × 104 kW,
             12,000 kW × 8,000 hours/yr = 96,000,000 kWh/year or 9.6 × 107 kWh/year
                                                OR
             12 MW × 1,000 kW/MW × 8,000 hrs/yr = 96,000,000 kWh/yr
                                                = 9.6 × 107 kWh/yr



(b) At the current rate of electrical energy use per household, how many kWh of electrical energy does the
    community consume in one year?

(2 points)

1 point for correct setup.
1 point for correct calculation
                               .
    Answer must show calculations.
    Point may be earned if the student writes the answer as a word problem.
    No points earned without showing or clearly stating calculations.
    Solutions to the question that use alternate setups and arrive at a correct answer will also earn points.


        3,000 homes × (8,000 kWh/home)/year = 24,000,000 kWh/year
                                                        = 2.4 × 107 kWh/year




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                                                                 7
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 2 (cont’d.)

(c) Compare your answers in (a) and (b) and explain why you would or would not expect the numbers to
    be the same.

(2 points, plus one possible elaboration point)

   1 point for comparing answers (a) and (b) with an explanation of why the numbers in parts (a) and (b) would
   be the same or different (must be a viable reason)
                                                     .
   OR
   1 point for a good explanation of why (a) and (b) are different even if the calculations were not attempted.

   1 possible elaboration point for explanations that go into great detail on why the numbers differ.

   Possible acceptable explanations as to why the electrical output of the power plant and the community’s
   consumption are different:

        •    The plant must be able to supply power during peak demand periods, not just supply power for the
             average energy use of the community
        •    The power company must plan to provide power for future growth of the community
        •    The plant does not run at full capacity 24 hours a day
        •    Consumption is less/more during different times of day/week/month/year
        •    Loss of energy during transmission (line loss) from plant to consumer
        •    The plant supplies energy to businesses and industry, not just homes
        •    The plant exports some of its power to the grid for use elsewhere
        •    Households may be using alternative energy sources (solar, etc.), and may be returning unused energy
             to the grid
        •    If a student says (a) is less than (b) with a viable reason for the difference (e.g., community uses other
             energy providers), points will be earned

   Note: If students say that (a) and (b) are the same, they must state that this can only occur if the households
   have backup systems that will produce energy for them if they exceed the power generated by the plant.




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AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 2 (cont’d.)

(d) Assuming that the electrical energy needs of the community do not change during the 25-year lifetime
    of the wind turbines, what would be the cost to the community of the electricity supplied by the WFWP
    over 25 years? Express your answer in dollars/kWh.

(2 points)

    1 point for correct setup.
    1 point for correct answer with calculations.
    Solutions to the question that use alternate setups and arrive at a correct answer will also earn points.

    If a student’s answer in part (b) is incorrect but the student appropriately uses it as the basis for the
    calculations for answering the question in part (d), the student will receive full credit for answering part (d) if
    the setup and calculations are correct, even if the answer is not one of the ones listed below.

  Solution A: Based on current community consumption of 2.4 × 107 kWh/year [from part (b)]

        kilowatt-hours for 25 years = 2.4 × 107 kWh/year × 25 years = 6 × 108 kWh

        direct cost for 25 years = 10 turbines × ($3 × 106/turbine) = $3 × 107

                           $3 × 107
        cost/kWh =                        = $0.05/kWh
                        6 × 108 kWh

  Solution B: Based on power being generated at full capacity (students may use either the rounded value of
        8,000 hours/year or the more accurate 8,760 hours/year)

        8,000 hours/year × 12 MW = 96,000 MWh/yr

        96,000 MWh/yr × 1,000 kW/MW = 96,000,000 kWh/yr

        96,000,000 kWh/yr × 25 years = 2,400,000,000 kWh = 2.4 × 109 kWh
                            $3 × 107
        cost/kWh =                          = $0.01/kWh
                        2.4 × 109 kWh

        Note: Only one point earned for solution B, because it assumes the plants work at maximum output. The
        question asked for cost based on community consumption.




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AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 2 (cont’d.)

(e) Identify and explain TWO environmental benefits to West Fremont of switching from coal to wind
    power and TWO environmental costs to West Fremont of switching from coal to wind power.

(4 points)

    1 point for identifying each environmental benefit and a suitable explanation linked to the benefit. Benefits
    and costs must be environmental and not economic (e.g., agriculture).          Only the first two benefits and
    explanations will be graded.
    Acceptable benefits with explanation for switching to wind power include:

      ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFIT                                                       EXPLANATION
  Perpetual/renewable resource                         If connected to a specific environmental benefit
  Reduce SO2 , SO3 , or SOx emissions                  Reduce acid deposition
  Reduce CO2 emissions                                 Slow global warming/global climate change
  Reduce CO emissions                                  Must link increased CO2 as cause



      ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFIT                                                       EXPLANATION
  Reduce dust and airborne particulate                 Reduce a specific health risk
  matter

  Reduce NOx                                           Reduce photochemical smog; ground-level ozone and associated
                                                       health risks
  Multiple use of land                                 If connected to an environmental benefit
  Reduce thermal pollution from coolant                Thermal shock; decreased dissolved oxygen content of water
  waters of coal-burning power plant
  Eliminate/reduce Hg, Pb, Cd, radioactivity           Reduce a specific health risk
  Reduce acid mine drainage from coal                  pH change in aquatic habitats
  mines
  Reduce the need for coal mining                      Reduce adverse effects of mining – mine drainage, erosion, etc.




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                                                                10
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                         2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                   Question 2 (cont’d.)

  1 point for identifying each environmental cost and a suitable explanation linked to the cost. Only the first
  two costs and explanations will be graded. Costs must be environmental and not economic (e.g., agriculture)
  Possible acceptable costs with explanation for switching to wind power include:

            ENVIRONMENTAL COST                                                     EXPLANATION
Negative aesthetic effect                                         Impairs view of natural landscape
Harmful to birds/migration                                        Birds die when they fly into spinning blades
Land requirement/alterations for wind farms                       Such as: cutting down trees to construct turbines leads
                                                                  to increased soil erosion
Winds are not always steady                                       Require a backup generation system that may cause
                                                                  air pollution
Noise pollution from spinning blades and/or generator             Negatively impacts animal behavior
Ecosystem fragmentation                                           Reduction in species population




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AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                          Question 3

(a) Explain how the properties of low-level radioactive waste differ from those of high-level radioactive
    waste and how these properties lead to different storage requirements. For one of the two types of
    radioactive waste, give an example of a specific isotope that may be present in the waste, and explain
    how human activity generates the waste.

(3 points)

    1 point for correctly explaining how the properties of low-level radioactive waste differ from those
    of high-level radioactive waste.

                             DIFFERENCES IN WASTE PROPERTIES
            LOW-LEVEL WASTE                                HIGH-LEVEL WASTE
 Low amount of radioactivity              High amount of radioactivity
 Remains dangerous for a relatively short period;            Remains dangerous for a relatively long period; has long
 has short half-life (a few hundred years or less)           half-life (tens of thousands of years)

    Note: The federal government’s definitions of radioactive waste materials sometimes differ from those
    provided in textbooks. Answers that were correct based on the information from textbooks earned points
    even if they were not in line with the information in official government documents.


1 point for correctly explaining how these properties lead to different storage requirements.

                               DIFFERENCES IN STORAGE REQUIREMENTS
                             LOW-LEVEL WASTE                 HIGH-LEVEL WASTE
                 On-site, either until it has decayed away
  PLACE                                                                 On-site until shipment to an isolated area where
                 and can be disposed of as ordinary trash, or
    OF                                                                  there is minimal possibility they can contaminate
                 until amounts are large enough for
 STORAGE                                                                the environment is possible
                 shipment to a hazardous waste landfill

 DURATION Safe storage will be necessary for a
                                                        Safe storage will be necessary for a relatively long
    OF    relatively short period (few hundred years at
                                                        period (tens of thousands of years at the least)
 STORAGE the most)

 METHOD                                                                 Must be stored in specially shielded containers
                 Stored in barrels (may be shielded as                  (casks) at the site or in water pools
    OF
                 necessary)
 STORAGE                                                                Must be cooled before long-term storage




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                                                                12
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 3 (cont’d.)

    1 point for providing an accurate example of a specific isotope that may be present in either low-level or high-
    level radioactive waste and explaining how human activity generates the waste.

    SPECIFIC ISOTOPES (for isotopes in bold, student may indicate use in medical applications):
    Americium (-241, -242), Barium-140, Bismuth (-210, -214), Carbon-14, Cerium (-141, -144),
    Cesium (-135, -137), Curium (-242, -243, -244), Krypton-85, Iodine (-129, -131*), Krypton-85,
    Lead (-206, -210, -214), Molybdenum-99*, Neodymium-147, Neptunium-237, Niobium-95,
    Plutonium (-239, -240, -241), Polonium (-210, -214, -218), Praseodymium-143, Promethium-147,
    Protactinium-234, Radium-226, Radon (-222, -226), Ruthenium (-103, -106),Strontium (-89*, -90),
    Technetium-99*, Thorium (-230, -234), Tritium, Uranium (-234, -235, -238), Xenon-133*, Yttrium-91,
    Zirconium-95

    HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT GENERATE THE WASTE:
     • Use of nuclear reactors
     • Nuclear fuel fabrication
     • Uranium fuel conversion facilities
     • Research or treatment at hospitals, medical schools, universities, radiochemical, or
        radiopharmaceutical facilities
     • Uranium mining
     • Weapons manufacturing


(b) The United States Department of Energy recently chose Yucca Mountain in Nevada as the site for the
    deep underground burial of high-level radioactive waste. Describe THREE characteristics of an ideal
    deep underground storage site for high-level radioactive waste.

(3 points)

    1 point each for describing three characteristics of an ideal deep underground storage site for high-level
    radioactive waste. Only the first three characteristics provided are considered.

    ACCEPTABLE CHARACTERISTICS:
     • Sufficiently large to accept current and future volume of waste
     • Not near fault lines
     • Not near volcanos
     • Geological formations that are chemically nonreactive
     • Remote location far from human settlements
     • Provides natural defense from attack
     • At least 600 meters (2,000 feet) below the surface
     • Geological and/or geographical characteristics that limit contact with either surface or ground water
     • Dry climate to minimize precipitation and percolation
     • Close proximity to radioactive waste producers to minimize need to transport waste




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                                                                13
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 3 (cont’d.)

(c) Identify TWO other options that have been suggested for the long-term management of radioactive
    waste. Discuss the feasibility of each method.
(3 points)
    1 point for identifying two additional options for the long-term management of radioactive waste. Only the
    first two options provided are considered.
    1 point each for the discussion of the feasibility of the two identified options. The student must discuss the
    feasibility of only the identified options to earn the point.
                  OPTION                                                          FEASIBILITY
 Storage under Antarctic or Greenland              Limited by technology; or threat of instability due to melting ice; or
 ice sheets                                        laws and international treaties
                                                   Limited by cost; or danger of accident during launch or flight; or
 Rocket to space or Sun
                                                   ethics; or unknown consequences
                                                   Limited by cost; or danger of accident during launch or flight; or
 Store on the Moon
                                                   threat of contamination of the Moon
                                                   Limited by danger of leaking containers; or laws and international
 Deep sea/ocean floor storage
                                                   treaties
                                                   Limited by facts that wastes could be spread by future volcanic
 Dump into subduction zones                        eruptions; or containers may leak and contaminate ocean before
                                                   being subducted; or retrieval would be impossible if method failed
 Above ground storage buildings (must              Limited by need to have adequate security or transportation
 indicate strength and durability)                 concerns. They are easier to monitor.
 Change it into harmless or less harmful
                                                   Limited by scientific capability
 isotopes (bio-/phytoremediation)
 Decommissioning/entombing old plants              Limited by leaks; or threats to security; or stability of the site
                                                   Limited by ethics; or threat of terrorism; or laws and international
 Ship to other countries
                                                   treaties; or transportation concerns; or doesn’t solve the problem
 Reduce energy demands/use alternate               Limited by the public’s willingness to do so; or growing
 energy                                            populations; or monetary disincentives




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                                                                14
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 3 (cont’d.)

 Reduce the amount of nuclear fuel needed Limited by technology

 Reprocess spent fuel                              Limited by U.S law, the NWPA, 1982; or the NIMBY syndrome.
                                                   Currently used in France and Japan.

 Reduce nuclear weapons manufacture                Limited by national security concerns; or jobs; or already a surplus

 Use cyclotron                                     Already in use
 Non-radiative alternatives                        Already in use
 Ocean dumping                                     Limited by law in U.S. Currently used by England and Pakistan.



(d) Exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation has adverse effects on human health and can result in
    immediate death. Identify one sublethal adverse effect on human health that can result from exposure
    to ionizing radiation, and explain how this effect is caused by the radiation.

(1 point)

    1 point for correctly identifying a sublethal adverse effect on human health and explaining how the effect is
    caused by the radiation.

    SUBLETHAL ADVERSE EFFECTS:
     • Cancer/tumors
     • Brain damage or delirium or convulsions
     • Eye damage or cataracts
     • Gastrointestinal tract damage or nausea and vomiting
     • Damage to fetus
     • Damage to ovaries and testes or sterility or birth defects
     • Damage to bone marrow
     • Impairment of immune system
     • Blood vessel damage or bruising from internal bleeding
     • Burns
     • Hair loss (student must connect hair loss to cell/follicle damage)

    CAUSES:
     • Cell/tissue damage
     • Cell death
     • DNA/chromosomal damage




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                                                                15
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                             2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                             Question 4

(a) Identify and describe one chemical soil test and one physical soil test that could be performed and
    explain how the results of these tests will allow the cooperative extension service to make specific
    recommendations for sustainable agriculture.

(3 points)

1 point for identifying and describing a chemical soil test.

CHEMICAL TESTS:
    •      pH -- Measures the acidity or alkalinity or hydrogen ion concentration
    •      Salinity (salinization) -- Measures salt content of soil
    •      Organic content (humus) -- Analysis that indicates organic content
    •      Ion exchange capacity -- Measures ability to absorb and release cations, especially plant nutrients

    On the following chemical tests the name is a sufficient descriptor of the test. (Symbols for the elements are
    acceptable.)
           ♦   Major elements
           ♦   Measures the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, or sulfur in any form
           ♦   Trace elements
           ♦   Measures the amount of iron, cobalt, boron, calcium, magnesium, manganese, selenium, aluminum,
               mercury, etc.

1 point for identifying and describing a physical soil test.

PHYSICAL TESTS (A description of how the test is conducted is sufficient for identification of the test):

 Soil Texture
 Ribbon test (ped test)
 Soil sieve test (nested sieves)
                                                        Percent/proportion of sand, silt, and clay-sized particles that make
 Composition/make-up
                                                        up the solid inorganic phase of soil
 Sedimentation
 Hydrometer method
 Particle-size analysis
 Water-holding capacity                                 Amount of water the soil can hold due to amount of pore or air
 Porosity                                               space
 Moisture content                                       Amount of water in the soil at a given time
 Particle density or bulk density                       How much a particular soil weighs per unit volume
 Soil Structure (friability)                            How soil is held together forming small clumps of various types
 Colloids and aggregates




                                Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved.
        Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents).

                                                                   16
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 4 (cont’d.)

PHYSICAL TESTS (continued):

 Percolation rate
 Soil drainage
                                                    Speed of infiltration of water into soil
 Infiltration
 Permeability
 Capillarity of soil                                Movement of water against the pull of gravity
                                                    Degree to which soil resists pressure from wind, water, and
 Soil compaction
                                                    machinery
                                                    Determines the nature of the soil horizons
 Soil profile analysis
                                                    (structure, depth, color – does not indicate texture)
                                                    Indicates soil components or properties (e.g., iron, amount of
 Color
                                                    humus, level of water table)


1 point for making specific recommendations for sustainable agriculture for either a physical or a chemical test.

APPLICATION OF TEST RESULTS TO SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE FROM COOPERATIVE
EXTENSION SERVICE (must relate to one of the previous tests):

    • Indicating suitable crops and cultivation practices
    • Adding soil additives such as sand, clay, or humus to affect ion-exchange capacity as well as moisture
      content and water-holding capacity
    • Applying lime for acid soil; applying sulfur for alkaline (basic) soil to neutralize
    • Planting leguminous crops to increase nitrogen, or apply manure
    • Liming or applying bone meal to improve phosphorus
    • Burning crop residue to increase potassium
    • Examining irrigation practices to combat salinity, erosion, and excessive water usage
    • Adding lime or limestone to increase calcium and magnesium
    • Applying gypsum or green sand to increase the sulfur content and water-holding capacity
    • Adding organic matter (animal manure, green manure, or crop residues) to improve many of the soil’s
      physical and chemical properties
    • Increasing soil fertility by using other practices such as grassed waterways and no-till crop rotation
    • Reducing the use of inorganic fertilizers
    • Decreasing agricultural soil erosion by using Best Management Practices (BMP)




                             Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved.
     Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents).

                                                                17
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                          2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                    Question 4 (cont’d.)

(b) Explain one advantage and one disadvantage to using inorganic commercial fertilizers.

(2 points)
    1 point for advantage
    1 point for disadvantage

                ADVANTAGES                                                         DISADVANTAGES

 Easily obtained, transported, stored, and                  Adds no humus or organic matter to soil/decreases
   applied                                                  water- holding capacity
 If both have to be purchased, they are more                Lowers oxygen content of soil and keeps nutrients from
   economical than organic fertilizers                       being taken up as efficiently
 Nutrients are concentrated and only small                  Does not completely supply all micronutrients
   amounts must be applied                                  Requires large amounts of energy for production,
 Computerized applications can release                       transportation, and application
   specific minerals needed by plants                       Releases nitrous oxide (N2O) a greenhouse gas
 Nutrients are immediately available to the
                                                            Over-application may harm plant
   crop
                                                            Aquatic pollution resulting from runoff in surface or
 Increase soil fertility
                                                             groundwater is detrimental to humans or ecosystems
 Have guaranteed/specific nutrient analysis
                                                            Can be very expensive to obtain and apply as compared to
 Increases crop yield                                        unpurchased organic fertilizer (if this is available)
 Speeds up the growing process



(c) Describe two soil conservation practices that are designed to decrease soil erosion.

(2 points)

    1 point each for identification of agricultural conservation practice and explanation of how it decreases soil
    erosion (practice must be linked to how it decreases erosion). If student describes three or more practices,
    only the first two will be scored.




                             Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved.
     Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents).

                                                                18
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                         2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                   Question 4 (cont’d.)

                    PRACTICE                                             HOW IT DECREASES EROSION
Conservation tillage                                       Disturb the soil as little as possible when planting crops

                                                           Inject seeds into slits or holes in the soil by machine –
No-till
                                                           minimum soil disturbance
                                                           Decrease the number of times the soil is disturbed –
Minimum tillage/reduced tillage
                                                           maintains crop residue
                                                           Shape land to create level shelves of earth to decrease soil
Terracing or division terrace
                                                           and water runoff

                    PRACTICE                                             HOW IT DECREASES EROSION
                                                           Plow in rows with the contour of gently sloped land to slow
Contour farming or planting
                                                           water runoff
                                                           Plant different crops in alternating strips to reduce water
Strip cropping/intercropping/polyculture
                                                           runoff and wind erosion
                                                           Plant crops in strips between trees and shrubs to reduce
Alley cropping /agroforestry
                                                           wind and water erosion
Windbreaks or shelterbelts of trees                        Reduce wind erosion
Rotation of crops with a ground cover                      Plant back-to-back (multicropping) to prevent erosion
Grassed waterways                                          Decreases gully erosion
Plant cover crops/native grasses                           Prevents erosion when main crops cannot be planted
Protect riparian zones (buffer strips)                     Prevents soil erosion into rivers and streams
Mulching                                                   Prevents raindrop impact and runoff
Land leveling                                              Recontour land in order to prevent soil loss
Leave land fallow with cover crop                          Leave land undisturbed or ungrazed for a period of time
Gully reclamation (arroyo)                                 Reclaim steep slopes from gully erosion
Modified irrigation methods                                Decreases water’s ability to act as an erosion agent (run-off)
Sustainable grazing                                        Regulates stocking rates to sustain cover
Land Classification (NRCS; SCS)                            Decreases utilization of easily erodible marginal land




                            Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved.
    Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents).

                                                               19
AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
                                           2004 SCORING GUIDELINES

                                                     Question 4 (cont’d.)

(d) Identify one biome that is characterized by soil that is rich in humus. Describe how humus originated in
    the soils of this biome, and TWO ways that humus improves soil conditions for plant growth.

(4 points, maximum 3 points for this part)

   1 point for correctly naming biome.
   1 point for explaining how the humus originated in that biome.
   2 points for explaining how humus improves soil conditions (1 point for each explanation).


                      BIOME                                                HOW HUMUS ORIGINATED
Deciduous forest:
 • tropical/seasonal (not tropical rainforest)          Plant and animal materials decompose
 • temperate
 Grasslands (temperate and tropical)
  • prairie
  • savannah                                            Grasses form a large amount of organic matter that decomposes
  • steppes
  • pampas
 Temperate rainforest                                   Needles/leaves decompose to form a layer of humus


How humus improves soil conditions:
  •   Provides nutrients/fertility for plants and soil organisms
  •   Helps topsoil hold water (water-holding capacity)
  •   Makes root growth easier
  •   Improves soil aeration
  •   Improves habitats for soil organisms
  •   Improves buffering capacity, which stabilizes pH
  •   Promotes development of mycorrhizae
  •   Prevents erosion
  •   Improves soil structure
  •   Improves porosity




                              Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved.
      Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents).

                                                                 20

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2004 frq scoring guide

  • 1. AP® Environmental Science 2004 Scoring Guidelines The materials included in these files are intended for noncommercial use by AP teachers for course and exam preparation; permission for any other use ® must be sought from the Advanced Placement Program . Teachers may reproduce them, in whole or in part, in limited quantities, for face-to-face teaching purposes but may not mass distribute the materials, electronically or otherwise. This permission does not apply to any third-party copyrights contained herein. These materials and any copies made of them may not be resold, and the copyright notices must be retained as they appear here. The College Board is a not-for-profit membership association whose mission is to connect students to college success and opportunity. Founded in 1900, the association is composed of more than 4,500 schools, colleges, universities, and other educational organizations. Each year, the College Board serves over three million students and their parents, 23,000 high schools, and 3,500 colleges through major programs and services in college admissions, guidance, assessment, financial aid, enrollment, and teaching and learning. Among its best-known programs are the SAT®, the PSAT/NMSQT®, and the Advanced Placement Program® (AP®). The College Board is committed to the principles of excellence and equity, and that commitment is embodied in all of its programs, services, activities, and concerns. For further information, visit www.collegeboard.com Copyright © 2004 College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. College Board, Advanced Placement Program, AP, AP Central, AP Vertical Teams, APCD, Pacesetter, Pre-AP, SAT, Student Search Service, and the acorn logo are registered trademarks of the College Entrance Examination Board. PSAT/NMSQT is a registered trademark of the College Entrance Examination Board and National Merit Scholarship Corporation. Educational Testing Service and ETS are registered trademarks of Educational Testing Service. Other products and services may be trademarks of their respective owners. For the College Board’s online home for AP professionals, visit AP Central at apcentral.collegeboard.com.
  • 2. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 1 (a) On the basis of the article above, indicate one human activity that releases mercury into the environment. Describe how mercury is transported from that source and enters aquatic systems, often hundreds of miles away. (3 points maximum out of a possible 4) 1 point for naming “the burning of coal” as the human activity that releases mercury into the environment, as mentioned in the document. • Only the first type of fossil fuel indicated in the answer will be considered. If the wrong source is named (e.g., petroleum products) students will not earn any points in part (a). • “Fossil fuel” alone, while not wrong, is unacceptable because mercury is a contaminant primarily in coal, and the document directs the student’s attention to it. • If students use “power plants/industry,” they must indicate that coal is used. 1 point for describing how mercury is transported. • Answers related to air transport should indicate the movement of air, wind, or air currents, since “goes into the air” does not include the idea of “transport.” • A reference to incorporation of the atmospheric mercury into the water cycle may be used to earn this point, but cannot be counted as the “aquatic systems entry” point without further elaboration. • A student who uses “coal washing” at the power plant as the actual source of mercury pollution must describe how the water is transported from that site. 1 point for describing how mercury enters aquatic systems from the source described above. “Aquatic systems” can include the abiotic and/or the biotic components of the system. If students discuss soil as an entry point, they must explain how mercury gets from soil to water (e.g., by erosion or leaching). Examples of acceptable answers are: • falls as dry particles into water or onto soil • falls with rain/precipitation into water or onto soil • enters water and becomes incorporated into food chains • could enter groundwater/surface water from the coal-washing process • could enter streams and rivers from groundwater 1 possible elaboration point for an answer that indicates an unusual depth of knowledge about the subject, by making points such as: • three states of mercury—particulate, elemental, and an oxidized form • microorganisms in the soil and water can convert inorganic mercury into an organic form, methyl mercury, in which form it can readily enter food chains Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 2
  • 3. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 1 (cont’d.) (b) Describe TWO ways that the amount of mercury released into the environment from the source in part (a) could be reduced. (2 points maximum) Note: If a student mentions “coal” in both parts of this answer, and if no specific “fossil fuel” was given in part (a) above, the student may earn the point for “the burning of coal” in part (a) if the answer is otherwise satisfactory. 1 point each for describing two of the methods given below. • Only the first two answers will be considered. • Simply naming a method is not enough; the answer should describe how this would result in a decrease in mercury by providing concrete examples, developing a rationale, or describing a process. • Only one point will be earned for multiple examples of the same argument, e.g. solar and wind energy as alternatives to coal. Reduce the amount or change the type of fossil fuel burned • burn higher-rank coals but with equivalent (or lower) mercury content, thereby generating more BTUs per unit amount of coal • burn coal with equivalent or better rank, but with lower mercury levels • use another kind of fossil fuel with lower mercury content, such as natural gas • switch to a power-generating system (wind, solar, hydroelectric, etc.) that has a much lower or non- existent mercury contamination component • make furnaces burn more efficiently (any of a variety of methods) Pre-combustion removal of mercury: • wash the coal (physical density separation or chemical cleaning) Post-combustion removal of mercury • use sorbents such as activated carbon, calcium, sodium tetrasulfide, or silicates which convert the gaseous mercury into an insoluble, thermally stable solid compound that can then be removed by using electrostatic precipitation, wet scrubbers, baghouse, fabric filter, or other particulate removal device (gaseous mercury must be converted before any of these other control methods can be effective, so “scrubbing” or “filtering” alone is not enough) • use catalyst systems that oxidize elemental mercury, which can then be removed, by wet lime or limestone flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems • cool the flue gas and capture fly ash Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 3
  • 4. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 1 (cont’d.) Other • enforce the Clean Air Act, stop exempting utilities from mercury control regulations, obtain international agreements, enact legislation to require controls, or the like (must include discussion of any of these chosen) • use tax incentives or other means of encouraging voluntary reductions (must include discussion) • conserve energy, reduce consumer demand, or the like (must include discussion) (c) Explain why there are greater health risks associated with eating large predatory fish, such as tuna and sea bass, than from eating small nonpredatory fish. (3 points maximum) 1 point for discussing why there would be more mercury in predatory vs. nonpredatory fish. This explanation should be based on the idea of bioaccumulation/biomagnification and may include concepts such as: • food chains or webs/trophic levels • mercury transfers to higher trophic levels • the concentration of mercury increases in higher trophic levels 1 point may be earned for discussing the relationship of size, long lifespan, and the accumulation of mercury. For example: over the course of a lifetime, older fish have had more time to accumulate significant amounts of mercury, regardless of their trophic level. This point also could be earned for a discussion of absorption through the skin/gills as it is related to the accumulation of mercury over a longer lifetime. 1 elaboration point is possible for an in-depth explanation of bioaccumulation/ biomagnification, or for a good explanation of one or more of the following topics: • mercury is stored in fat/muscle and cannot be removed easily by body enzymes • mercury can enter food chains by being converted to methyl mercury [no credit earned here if already earned in part (a)] • explains the difference between bioaccumulation and biomagnification Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 4
  • 5. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 1 (cont’d.) (d) Identify a toxic metal other than mercury that has a negative impact on human health and describe how it is introduced into the environment. Describe an acute sublethal effect on humans that results from exposure to this metal. (3 points maximum) Consider only the first metal and the first effect given. 1 point for naming a toxic metal, 1 point for describing how it is introduced into the environment, and 1 point for describing a sublethal effect on humans. If no toxic metal was identified, no points could be earned in this part. (Lead was the most common answer given; following is the rubric used for lead. Many other metals could be used to earn credit in this part.) How Lead Is Introduced Effects of Lead on Human Health (read all for a correct answer) Industry: abdominal pain mining and refining processes adrenal/liver/kidney dysfunction Consumer goods: allergies batteries anxiety cigarette smoke autism coal combustion birth defects/toxic to the fetus colored inks blindness cosmetics bones/joint pain and weakness/arthritis electronics cardiovascular disease firing ranges/bullets colic food (esp. candy) constipation gasoline additives convulsions hair dyes depression insecticides dizziness/headache/fatigue/nausea paint dyslexia pottery glazes epilepsy plumbing GI symptoms radiator repair shops gout TV picture tube hallucination/mood swings/nightmares/poor toothpaste concentration/psychosis volcanic eruptions hyperactivity window blinds immune system depression wine impotence Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 5
  • 6. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 1 (cont’d.) Effects of Lead on Human Health (cont’d.) menstrual problems multiple sclerosis muscular dystrophy neurological effects/brain development and function/ hostility/hypertension/learning disorders/mental retardation/numbness Parkinson’s disease prostate enlargement red blood cell/anemia/enzyme function restlessness stroke Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 6
  • 7. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 2 (a) Assuming that the existing power plant can operate at full capacity for 8,000 hours/yr, how many kWh of electrical energy can be produced by the plant in a year? (2 points) 1 point for correct setup. 1 point for correctly calculating the amount of electricity generated per year. Answer must show calculations. Student must correctly convert MW to kW. Points may be earned if the student writes the answer as a word problem. No points earned without showing or clearly stating calculations. Solutions to the question that use alternate setups and arrive at a correct answer will also earn points. 12 MW = 12,000 kW or 1.2 × 104 kW, 12,000 kW × 8,000 hours/yr = 96,000,000 kWh/year or 9.6 × 107 kWh/year OR 12 MW × 1,000 kW/MW × 8,000 hrs/yr = 96,000,000 kWh/yr = 9.6 × 107 kWh/yr (b) At the current rate of electrical energy use per household, how many kWh of electrical energy does the community consume in one year? (2 points) 1 point for correct setup. 1 point for correct calculation . Answer must show calculations. Point may be earned if the student writes the answer as a word problem. No points earned without showing or clearly stating calculations. Solutions to the question that use alternate setups and arrive at a correct answer will also earn points. 3,000 homes × (8,000 kWh/home)/year = 24,000,000 kWh/year = 2.4 × 107 kWh/year Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 7
  • 8. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 2 (cont’d.) (c) Compare your answers in (a) and (b) and explain why you would or would not expect the numbers to be the same. (2 points, plus one possible elaboration point) 1 point for comparing answers (a) and (b) with an explanation of why the numbers in parts (a) and (b) would be the same or different (must be a viable reason) . OR 1 point for a good explanation of why (a) and (b) are different even if the calculations were not attempted. 1 possible elaboration point for explanations that go into great detail on why the numbers differ. Possible acceptable explanations as to why the electrical output of the power plant and the community’s consumption are different: • The plant must be able to supply power during peak demand periods, not just supply power for the average energy use of the community • The power company must plan to provide power for future growth of the community • The plant does not run at full capacity 24 hours a day • Consumption is less/more during different times of day/week/month/year • Loss of energy during transmission (line loss) from plant to consumer • The plant supplies energy to businesses and industry, not just homes • The plant exports some of its power to the grid for use elsewhere • Households may be using alternative energy sources (solar, etc.), and may be returning unused energy to the grid • If a student says (a) is less than (b) with a viable reason for the difference (e.g., community uses other energy providers), points will be earned Note: If students say that (a) and (b) are the same, they must state that this can only occur if the households have backup systems that will produce energy for them if they exceed the power generated by the plant. Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 8
  • 9. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 2 (cont’d.) (d) Assuming that the electrical energy needs of the community do not change during the 25-year lifetime of the wind turbines, what would be the cost to the community of the electricity supplied by the WFWP over 25 years? Express your answer in dollars/kWh. (2 points) 1 point for correct setup. 1 point for correct answer with calculations. Solutions to the question that use alternate setups and arrive at a correct answer will also earn points. If a student’s answer in part (b) is incorrect but the student appropriately uses it as the basis for the calculations for answering the question in part (d), the student will receive full credit for answering part (d) if the setup and calculations are correct, even if the answer is not one of the ones listed below. Solution A: Based on current community consumption of 2.4 × 107 kWh/year [from part (b)] kilowatt-hours for 25 years = 2.4 × 107 kWh/year × 25 years = 6 × 108 kWh direct cost for 25 years = 10 turbines × ($3 × 106/turbine) = $3 × 107 $3 × 107 cost/kWh = = $0.05/kWh 6 × 108 kWh Solution B: Based on power being generated at full capacity (students may use either the rounded value of 8,000 hours/year or the more accurate 8,760 hours/year) 8,000 hours/year × 12 MW = 96,000 MWh/yr 96,000 MWh/yr × 1,000 kW/MW = 96,000,000 kWh/yr 96,000,000 kWh/yr × 25 years = 2,400,000,000 kWh = 2.4 × 109 kWh $3 × 107 cost/kWh = = $0.01/kWh 2.4 × 109 kWh Note: Only one point earned for solution B, because it assumes the plants work at maximum output. The question asked for cost based on community consumption. Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 9
  • 10. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 2 (cont’d.) (e) Identify and explain TWO environmental benefits to West Fremont of switching from coal to wind power and TWO environmental costs to West Fremont of switching from coal to wind power. (4 points) 1 point for identifying each environmental benefit and a suitable explanation linked to the benefit. Benefits and costs must be environmental and not economic (e.g., agriculture). Only the first two benefits and explanations will be graded. Acceptable benefits with explanation for switching to wind power include: ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFIT EXPLANATION Perpetual/renewable resource If connected to a specific environmental benefit Reduce SO2 , SO3 , or SOx emissions Reduce acid deposition Reduce CO2 emissions Slow global warming/global climate change Reduce CO emissions Must link increased CO2 as cause ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFIT EXPLANATION Reduce dust and airborne particulate Reduce a specific health risk matter Reduce NOx Reduce photochemical smog; ground-level ozone and associated health risks Multiple use of land If connected to an environmental benefit Reduce thermal pollution from coolant Thermal shock; decreased dissolved oxygen content of water waters of coal-burning power plant Eliminate/reduce Hg, Pb, Cd, radioactivity Reduce a specific health risk Reduce acid mine drainage from coal pH change in aquatic habitats mines Reduce the need for coal mining Reduce adverse effects of mining – mine drainage, erosion, etc. Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 10
  • 11. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 2 (cont’d.) 1 point for identifying each environmental cost and a suitable explanation linked to the cost. Only the first two costs and explanations will be graded. Costs must be environmental and not economic (e.g., agriculture) Possible acceptable costs with explanation for switching to wind power include: ENVIRONMENTAL COST EXPLANATION Negative aesthetic effect Impairs view of natural landscape Harmful to birds/migration Birds die when they fly into spinning blades Land requirement/alterations for wind farms Such as: cutting down trees to construct turbines leads to increased soil erosion Winds are not always steady Require a backup generation system that may cause air pollution Noise pollution from spinning blades and/or generator Negatively impacts animal behavior Ecosystem fragmentation Reduction in species population Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 11
  • 12. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 3 (a) Explain how the properties of low-level radioactive waste differ from those of high-level radioactive waste and how these properties lead to different storage requirements. For one of the two types of radioactive waste, give an example of a specific isotope that may be present in the waste, and explain how human activity generates the waste. (3 points) 1 point for correctly explaining how the properties of low-level radioactive waste differ from those of high-level radioactive waste. DIFFERENCES IN WASTE PROPERTIES LOW-LEVEL WASTE HIGH-LEVEL WASTE Low amount of radioactivity High amount of radioactivity Remains dangerous for a relatively short period; Remains dangerous for a relatively long period; has long has short half-life (a few hundred years or less) half-life (tens of thousands of years) Note: The federal government’s definitions of radioactive waste materials sometimes differ from those provided in textbooks. Answers that were correct based on the information from textbooks earned points even if they were not in line with the information in official government documents. 1 point for correctly explaining how these properties lead to different storage requirements. DIFFERENCES IN STORAGE REQUIREMENTS LOW-LEVEL WASTE HIGH-LEVEL WASTE On-site, either until it has decayed away PLACE On-site until shipment to an isolated area where and can be disposed of as ordinary trash, or OF there is minimal possibility they can contaminate until amounts are large enough for STORAGE the environment is possible shipment to a hazardous waste landfill DURATION Safe storage will be necessary for a Safe storage will be necessary for a relatively long OF relatively short period (few hundred years at period (tens of thousands of years at the least) STORAGE the most) METHOD Must be stored in specially shielded containers Stored in barrels (may be shielded as (casks) at the site or in water pools OF necessary) STORAGE Must be cooled before long-term storage Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 12
  • 13. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 3 (cont’d.) 1 point for providing an accurate example of a specific isotope that may be present in either low-level or high- level radioactive waste and explaining how human activity generates the waste. SPECIFIC ISOTOPES (for isotopes in bold, student may indicate use in medical applications): Americium (-241, -242), Barium-140, Bismuth (-210, -214), Carbon-14, Cerium (-141, -144), Cesium (-135, -137), Curium (-242, -243, -244), Krypton-85, Iodine (-129, -131*), Krypton-85, Lead (-206, -210, -214), Molybdenum-99*, Neodymium-147, Neptunium-237, Niobium-95, Plutonium (-239, -240, -241), Polonium (-210, -214, -218), Praseodymium-143, Promethium-147, Protactinium-234, Radium-226, Radon (-222, -226), Ruthenium (-103, -106),Strontium (-89*, -90), Technetium-99*, Thorium (-230, -234), Tritium, Uranium (-234, -235, -238), Xenon-133*, Yttrium-91, Zirconium-95 HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT GENERATE THE WASTE: • Use of nuclear reactors • Nuclear fuel fabrication • Uranium fuel conversion facilities • Research or treatment at hospitals, medical schools, universities, radiochemical, or radiopharmaceutical facilities • Uranium mining • Weapons manufacturing (b) The United States Department of Energy recently chose Yucca Mountain in Nevada as the site for the deep underground burial of high-level radioactive waste. Describe THREE characteristics of an ideal deep underground storage site for high-level radioactive waste. (3 points) 1 point each for describing three characteristics of an ideal deep underground storage site for high-level radioactive waste. Only the first three characteristics provided are considered. ACCEPTABLE CHARACTERISTICS: • Sufficiently large to accept current and future volume of waste • Not near fault lines • Not near volcanos • Geological formations that are chemically nonreactive • Remote location far from human settlements • Provides natural defense from attack • At least 600 meters (2,000 feet) below the surface • Geological and/or geographical characteristics that limit contact with either surface or ground water • Dry climate to minimize precipitation and percolation • Close proximity to radioactive waste producers to minimize need to transport waste Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 13
  • 14. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 3 (cont’d.) (c) Identify TWO other options that have been suggested for the long-term management of radioactive waste. Discuss the feasibility of each method. (3 points) 1 point for identifying two additional options for the long-term management of radioactive waste. Only the first two options provided are considered. 1 point each for the discussion of the feasibility of the two identified options. The student must discuss the feasibility of only the identified options to earn the point. OPTION FEASIBILITY Storage under Antarctic or Greenland Limited by technology; or threat of instability due to melting ice; or ice sheets laws and international treaties Limited by cost; or danger of accident during launch or flight; or Rocket to space or Sun ethics; or unknown consequences Limited by cost; or danger of accident during launch or flight; or Store on the Moon threat of contamination of the Moon Limited by danger of leaking containers; or laws and international Deep sea/ocean floor storage treaties Limited by facts that wastes could be spread by future volcanic Dump into subduction zones eruptions; or containers may leak and contaminate ocean before being subducted; or retrieval would be impossible if method failed Above ground storage buildings (must Limited by need to have adequate security or transportation indicate strength and durability) concerns. They are easier to monitor. Change it into harmless or less harmful Limited by scientific capability isotopes (bio-/phytoremediation) Decommissioning/entombing old plants Limited by leaks; or threats to security; or stability of the site Limited by ethics; or threat of terrorism; or laws and international Ship to other countries treaties; or transportation concerns; or doesn’t solve the problem Reduce energy demands/use alternate Limited by the public’s willingness to do so; or growing energy populations; or monetary disincentives Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 14
  • 15. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 3 (cont’d.) Reduce the amount of nuclear fuel needed Limited by technology Reprocess spent fuel Limited by U.S law, the NWPA, 1982; or the NIMBY syndrome. Currently used in France and Japan. Reduce nuclear weapons manufacture Limited by national security concerns; or jobs; or already a surplus Use cyclotron Already in use Non-radiative alternatives Already in use Ocean dumping Limited by law in U.S. Currently used by England and Pakistan. (d) Exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation has adverse effects on human health and can result in immediate death. Identify one sublethal adverse effect on human health that can result from exposure to ionizing radiation, and explain how this effect is caused by the radiation. (1 point) 1 point for correctly identifying a sublethal adverse effect on human health and explaining how the effect is caused by the radiation. SUBLETHAL ADVERSE EFFECTS: • Cancer/tumors • Brain damage or delirium or convulsions • Eye damage or cataracts • Gastrointestinal tract damage or nausea and vomiting • Damage to fetus • Damage to ovaries and testes or sterility or birth defects • Damage to bone marrow • Impairment of immune system • Blood vessel damage or bruising from internal bleeding • Burns • Hair loss (student must connect hair loss to cell/follicle damage) CAUSES: • Cell/tissue damage • Cell death • DNA/chromosomal damage Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 15
  • 16. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 4 (a) Identify and describe one chemical soil test and one physical soil test that could be performed and explain how the results of these tests will allow the cooperative extension service to make specific recommendations for sustainable agriculture. (3 points) 1 point for identifying and describing a chemical soil test. CHEMICAL TESTS: • pH -- Measures the acidity or alkalinity or hydrogen ion concentration • Salinity (salinization) -- Measures salt content of soil • Organic content (humus) -- Analysis that indicates organic content • Ion exchange capacity -- Measures ability to absorb and release cations, especially plant nutrients On the following chemical tests the name is a sufficient descriptor of the test. (Symbols for the elements are acceptable.) ♦ Major elements ♦ Measures the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, or sulfur in any form ♦ Trace elements ♦ Measures the amount of iron, cobalt, boron, calcium, magnesium, manganese, selenium, aluminum, mercury, etc. 1 point for identifying and describing a physical soil test. PHYSICAL TESTS (A description of how the test is conducted is sufficient for identification of the test): Soil Texture Ribbon test (ped test) Soil sieve test (nested sieves) Percent/proportion of sand, silt, and clay-sized particles that make Composition/make-up up the solid inorganic phase of soil Sedimentation Hydrometer method Particle-size analysis Water-holding capacity Amount of water the soil can hold due to amount of pore or air Porosity space Moisture content Amount of water in the soil at a given time Particle density or bulk density How much a particular soil weighs per unit volume Soil Structure (friability) How soil is held together forming small clumps of various types Colloids and aggregates Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 16
  • 17. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 4 (cont’d.) PHYSICAL TESTS (continued): Percolation rate Soil drainage Speed of infiltration of water into soil Infiltration Permeability Capillarity of soil Movement of water against the pull of gravity Degree to which soil resists pressure from wind, water, and Soil compaction machinery Determines the nature of the soil horizons Soil profile analysis (structure, depth, color – does not indicate texture) Indicates soil components or properties (e.g., iron, amount of Color humus, level of water table) 1 point for making specific recommendations for sustainable agriculture for either a physical or a chemical test. APPLICATION OF TEST RESULTS TO SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE FROM COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE (must relate to one of the previous tests): • Indicating suitable crops and cultivation practices • Adding soil additives such as sand, clay, or humus to affect ion-exchange capacity as well as moisture content and water-holding capacity • Applying lime for acid soil; applying sulfur for alkaline (basic) soil to neutralize • Planting leguminous crops to increase nitrogen, or apply manure • Liming or applying bone meal to improve phosphorus • Burning crop residue to increase potassium • Examining irrigation practices to combat salinity, erosion, and excessive water usage • Adding lime or limestone to increase calcium and magnesium • Applying gypsum or green sand to increase the sulfur content and water-holding capacity • Adding organic matter (animal manure, green manure, or crop residues) to improve many of the soil’s physical and chemical properties • Increasing soil fertility by using other practices such as grassed waterways and no-till crop rotation • Reducing the use of inorganic fertilizers • Decreasing agricultural soil erosion by using Best Management Practices (BMP) Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 17
  • 18. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 4 (cont’d.) (b) Explain one advantage and one disadvantage to using inorganic commercial fertilizers. (2 points) 1 point for advantage 1 point for disadvantage ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Easily obtained, transported, stored, and Adds no humus or organic matter to soil/decreases applied water- holding capacity If both have to be purchased, they are more Lowers oxygen content of soil and keeps nutrients from economical than organic fertilizers being taken up as efficiently Nutrients are concentrated and only small Does not completely supply all micronutrients amounts must be applied Requires large amounts of energy for production, Computerized applications can release transportation, and application specific minerals needed by plants Releases nitrous oxide (N2O) a greenhouse gas Nutrients are immediately available to the Over-application may harm plant crop Aquatic pollution resulting from runoff in surface or Increase soil fertility groundwater is detrimental to humans or ecosystems Have guaranteed/specific nutrient analysis Can be very expensive to obtain and apply as compared to Increases crop yield unpurchased organic fertilizer (if this is available) Speeds up the growing process (c) Describe two soil conservation practices that are designed to decrease soil erosion. (2 points) 1 point each for identification of agricultural conservation practice and explanation of how it decreases soil erosion (practice must be linked to how it decreases erosion). If student describes three or more practices, only the first two will be scored. Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 18
  • 19. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 4 (cont’d.) PRACTICE HOW IT DECREASES EROSION Conservation tillage Disturb the soil as little as possible when planting crops Inject seeds into slits or holes in the soil by machine – No-till minimum soil disturbance Decrease the number of times the soil is disturbed – Minimum tillage/reduced tillage maintains crop residue Shape land to create level shelves of earth to decrease soil Terracing or division terrace and water runoff PRACTICE HOW IT DECREASES EROSION Plow in rows with the contour of gently sloped land to slow Contour farming or planting water runoff Plant different crops in alternating strips to reduce water Strip cropping/intercropping/polyculture runoff and wind erosion Plant crops in strips between trees and shrubs to reduce Alley cropping /agroforestry wind and water erosion Windbreaks or shelterbelts of trees Reduce wind erosion Rotation of crops with a ground cover Plant back-to-back (multicropping) to prevent erosion Grassed waterways Decreases gully erosion Plant cover crops/native grasses Prevents erosion when main crops cannot be planted Protect riparian zones (buffer strips) Prevents soil erosion into rivers and streams Mulching Prevents raindrop impact and runoff Land leveling Recontour land in order to prevent soil loss Leave land fallow with cover crop Leave land undisturbed or ungrazed for a period of time Gully reclamation (arroyo) Reclaim steep slopes from gully erosion Modified irrigation methods Decreases water’s ability to act as an erosion agent (run-off) Sustainable grazing Regulates stocking rates to sustain cover Land Classification (NRCS; SCS) Decreases utilization of easily erodible marginal land Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 19
  • 20. AP® ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2004 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 4 (cont’d.) (d) Identify one biome that is characterized by soil that is rich in humus. Describe how humus originated in the soils of this biome, and TWO ways that humus improves soil conditions for plant growth. (4 points, maximum 3 points for this part) 1 point for correctly naming biome. 1 point for explaining how the humus originated in that biome. 2 points for explaining how humus improves soil conditions (1 point for each explanation). BIOME HOW HUMUS ORIGINATED Deciduous forest: • tropical/seasonal (not tropical rainforest) Plant and animal materials decompose • temperate Grasslands (temperate and tropical) • prairie • savannah Grasses form a large amount of organic matter that decomposes • steppes • pampas Temperate rainforest Needles/leaves decompose to form a layer of humus How humus improves soil conditions: • Provides nutrients/fertility for plants and soil organisms • Helps topsoil hold water (water-holding capacity) • Makes root growth easier • Improves soil aeration • Improves habitats for soil organisms • Improves buffering capacity, which stabilizes pH • Promotes development of mycorrhizae • Prevents erosion • Improves soil structure • Improves porosity Copyright © 2004 by College Entrance Examination Board. All rights reserved. Visit apcentral.collegeboard.com (for AP professionals) and www.collegeboard.com/apstudents (for AP students and parents). 20