SlideShare une entreprise Scribd logo
1  sur  90
Personality
Psychology 2012 – Fall 2003
Introduction: What is
Personality?
An individual’s unique and relatively
consistent patterns of thinking, feeling,
and behaving
Personality – an attempt to describe and
explain how people are similar, how they
are different, and why every individual is
unique
Tries to explain the whole person
Introduction: What is
Personality?
Personality theories can be roughly grouped under
four basic perspectives:

The psychoanalytic perspective – emphasizes the
importance of unconscious processes and the influence of
early childhood experiences
The humanistic perspective – represents an optimistic look
at human nature, emphasizing the self and the fulfillment of
a person’s unique potential
The social cognitive perspective – emphasizing learning and
conscious cognitive processes, including the importance of
beliefs about the self, goal-setting, and self-regulation
The trait perspective – emphasizes the description and
measurement of specific personality differences among
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, the
founder of psychoanalysis, was one of the
most influential figures of the twentieth
century
Psychoanalysis – the theory of personality that
stresses the influence of:
Unconscious mental processes
Sexual and aggressive instincts, and
The enduring effects of early childhood experience on
personality
Sigmund Freud
Assumptions:
Traits transcend
situations
Personality
formed in
childhood
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
The life of Sigmund Freud
Freud studied medicine, became a
physician, and then proved himself an
outstanding physiological researcher
However, prospects for an academic career in
scientific research were very poor, especially
for a Jew in Vienna, which was intensely antiSemitic at that time
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Influences in the development of Freud’s ideas

Joseph Breuer – a highly respected physician, who found
that when patients were hypnotized and allowed to talk
freely about a given symptom, forgotten memories of
traumatic events would emerge

After patients freely expressed the pent-up emotions associated
with the events, symptoms would disappear
A process Breuer call catharsis

Freud dropped the use of hypnosis and developed his own
technique of free association to help patients uncover
forgotten memories

Freud’s patients would spontaneously report their uncensored
thoughts, mental images, and feelings as they came to mind
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Influences in the development of Freud’s ideas
Breuer and Freud described several of their case studies in
their landmark book Studies on Hysteria; published in 1895,
it marked the beginning of psychoanalysis
In 1900, Freud published what many consider his most
important work, The Interpretation of Dreams
Freud came to focus on humanity’s destructive tendencies;
Freud wrote Civilization and Its Discontents, in which he
applied his psychoanalytic perspective to civilization as a
whole
The central theme: human nature and civilization are in basic
conflict – a conflict that cannot be resolved
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Freud’s Dynamic Theory of Personality

Freud saw personality and behavior as resulting from a
constant interplay between conflicting psychological forces
that operate at three different levels of awareness
1.
2.

3.

All the thoughts, feelings, and sensations that you are aware
of at this particular moment represent the conscious level
The preconscious contains information of which you’re not
currently aware, but is easily capable of entering your
consciousness, such as childhood memories or your social
security number
The bulk of Freud’s psychological iceberg is made up of the
unconscious, which lies below the waterline of the
preconscious and the conscious

We are not directly aware of these submerged thought, feelings,
wishes, and drives
But the unconscious exerts an enormous influence on our
conscious thoughts and behavior
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Freud’s Dynamic Theory of Personality

Freud believed that unconscious material often
seeps through to the conscious level in distorted
disguised, or symbolic forms
Dream analysis was particularly important to Freud

Beneath the surface images (manifest content) of a dream
lies the true, hidden, unconscious meaning of the dream
symbols (latent content)

The unconscious also can be revealed in
unintentional actions,

Such as accidents, mistakes, instances of forgetting and
inadvertent slips of the tongue (often referred to as
“Freudian Slips”)
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
The structure of personality

Psychological energy evolves to form the three basic
structures of personality – the id, the ego, and the
superego. These are distinct psychological processes.

The id, the most primitive part of the personality, is entirely
unconscious and present at birth – it is completely immune to
logic, values, morality, danger, and the demands of the
external world
Two conflicting instinctual drives fuel the id: the life instinct and
the death instinct
1.
Eros – the life instinct; consists of biological urges that
perpetuate the existence of the individual and the species
(hunger, thirst, physical comfort, sexuality)
2.
Thanatos – the death instinct; destructive energy that is
reflected in aggressive, reckless, and life-threatening
behaviors, including self-destructive actions
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
The id is rules by the pleasure principle
The relentless drive toward immediate
satisfaction of the instinctual urges,
especially sexual urges.
The id strives to increase pleasure, reduce
tension, and avoid pain
The newborn infant is completely driven by the
pleasure principle
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
The structure of personality
A new dimension of personality develops from part
of the id’s psychological energy – the ego
Partly conscious, the ego represents the organized,
rational, and planning dimensions of personality
The mediator between the id’s instinctual demands and the
restrictions of the outer world, the ego operates on the
reality principle
The capacity to postpone gratification until the
appropriate time or circumstances exist in the external
world
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
The ego is the pragmatic part of the
personality that learns various
compromises to reduce the tension of
the id’s instinctual urges.
If the ego cannot identify an acceptable
compromise to satisfy an instinctual urge, it
can repress the impulse
Remove it from conscious awareness
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
The structure of personality

Gradually, social values move from being
externally imposed demands to being
internalized rules and values

By age 5-6, young children develop an internal,
parental voice that is partly conscious – the
superego
As the internal representation of parental and
societal values, the superego evaluates the
acceptability of behavior and thoughts, then praises
or admonishes
Freud’s Model
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
The ego defense mechanisms: unconscious
self-deceptions

When the demands of the id or superego threaten
to overwhelm the ego, anxiety results
If a realistic solution or compromise is not
possible, the ego may temporarily reduce anxiety
by distorting thoughts or perceptions of reality
through processes Freud called ego defense
mechanisms
By resorting to these largely unconscious selfdeceptions, the ego can maintain an integrated sense of
self
While searching for a more acceptable and realistic
solution to a conflict between the id and superego
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Ego defenses

The most fundamental ego defense mechanism is
repression – unconscious forgetting

Unbeknownst to the person, anxiety-producing thoughts,
feelings, or impulses are pushed out of conscious awareness
into the unconscious

Displacement – impulses are redirected to a substitute
object or person

Usually one less threatening or dangerous than the original
source of conflict

The use of defense mechanisms is very common

Many psychologically healthy people temporarily use ego
defense mechanisms to deal with stressful events

When they delay or interfere with our use of more constructive
coping strategies, they can be counterproductive
Freudian Theory: Defense
Defense Mechanisms

Methods for dealing with anxiety
Freud thought some more mature than
others
Denial

Sublimation

Projection

Reaction Formation
Denial
Refusing to accept that the feeling is
present or that the event occurred
A very primitive mechanism
Example: preschoolers will convince
themselves they didn't do something
they wish they hadn't
Projection
Attributing one's undesirable traits or
actions to others, so they become the
problem instead of you
Example from a failing student:
"I'm not worried about me, but I'd hate
to see Ellen flunk--she's so fragile"
Reaction Formation
Taking actions opposite to one's
feelings in order to deny the reality of
the feelings
Example: A woman says she can’t
stand her boss, when in reality she is
in love with him
Sublimation
The most mature mechanism
Redirecting anxiety-causing impulses
into socially acceptable actions
Example:
Dealing with anxiety over a final by
engaging in vigorous physical activity
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Personality development: The psychosexual
stages
Freud believed that people progress through five
psychosexual stages of development
The foundations of the adult personality are established
during the first six years of life, as the child progresses
through the oral, anal, and phallic stages
The latency stage occurs during later childhood and the
fifth and final stage, the genital stage, begins in
adolescence
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
In Freud’s theory, the psychosexual
stages are age-related developmental
periods in which sexual impulses are
focused on different bodily zones
And are expressed through activities
associated with those areas
Freudian Theory: Stages
Psychosexual Stages

(source of libido satisfaction)
Oral (0-1 year)
Anal (1-3 years)
Phallic (3-6 years)
Latency (6-puberty)
Genital (from puberty)
Freudian Theory: Stages
Oral Stage:

Libido gratification comes from oral
exploration of the world
Infant learns to trust in others, esp. for food

Oral Personality:
Problems in the oral stage supposedly lead
to pessimism about the world, hostility or
passivity
Freudian Theory: Stages
Anal Stage:

Kids learn about delay of gratification
Kids gain pleasure and libido
satisfaction from being in control

Anal Personality:
Problems in the anal stage
supposedly lead to either excessive
orderliness or excessive messiness
Freudian Theory: Stages
Phallic Stage:
Freud believed sex-role identification occurred
Mechanisms included castration anxiety
(boys) & penis envy (girls)
Phallic Personality:
Problems in the phallic stage supposedly lead
to sex-role identification problems,
promiscuity, vanity, or excessive chastity
Freudian Theory: Stages
Latency Stage:
A time of focus on achievement and mastery
of skills
Libido is channeled into mastery activities
Freud thought little of interest happened here
Others have argued the sense of self-esteem
is established here
Freudian Theory: Stages
Genital Stage:
The time of mature personality,
intimacy with others
Libido satisfied by adult-type sexual
activity
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Fixation – unresolved developmental conflicts
At each psychosexual stage, according to Freud,
the infant or young child is faced with a
developmental conflict that must be successfully
resolved in order to move on to the next stage
If frustrated, the child will be left with feelings of
unmet needs characteristic of that stage;

If overindulged, the child may be reluctant to move on to
the next stage
In either case, the result of an unresolved developmental
conflict is fixation at a particular stage
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
The Oedipus complex: A psychosexual
drama
The most critical conflict occurs during the
phallic stage
Freud believed that the child develops a sexual
attraction to the opposite-sex parent and
hostility toward the same-sex parent
Freud called this the Oedipus complex – named after
the hero of a Greek myth
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
The Oedipus complex: A psychosexual drama

The little boy feels hostility and jealously toward his father,
but he realizes that his father is more physically powerful
The boy experiences castration anxiety

To resolve the Oedipus complex, the little boy ultimately
joins forces with his former enemy resorting to the defense
mechanism of identification

He imitates and internalizes his father’s values, attitudes, and
mannerisms

The little girl discovers that little boys have a penis and that
she does not
She feels a sense of deprivation and loss that Freud termed
penis envy

The little girl blames her mother and develops contempt for her
However, in her attempt to take her mother’s place with her
father, she also identifies with her mother
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
The Neo-Freudians: Freud’s descendents
and dissenters
In general, the neo-Freudians disagreed with
Freud on three key points
Freud’s belief that behavior was primarily motivated by
sexual urges
Freud’s contention that personality is fundamentally
determined by early childhood experiences
Freud’s generally pessimistic view of human nature and
society
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Carl Jung: Archetypes and the collective
unconscious
Swiss psychiatrist Carl G. Jung broke with Freud
to develop his own psychoanalytic theory of
personality
He believed that people are motivated by a more general
psychological energy that pushes them to achieve
psychological growth, self-realization, and psychic
wholeness and harmony
He also believed that personality continues to develop in
significant ways throughout the lifespan
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Carl Jung, continued
Jung believed that the deepest part of the individual psyche
is the collective unconscious
Shared by all people and reflects humanity’s collective
evolutionary history
Contained in the collective unconscious are the archetypes
The mental images of universal human instincts, themes and
preoccupations

Jung was the first to describe two basic personality types:
Introverts – who focus their attention inward
Extroverts – who turn their attention and energy toward the
outside world
Karen Horney
Stressed need for
safety & satisfaction
Childhood frustration
may lead to
development of basic
anxiety & neurosis
Tyranny of the Should: Horney's term for focusing
on an unrealistic, perfect self-image that leads to
dissatisfaction
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Karen Horney: basic anxiety and “womb envy”

German-born American psychoanalyst Karen Horney came
to stress the importance of cultural and social factors in
personality development, matters that Freud had largely
ignored
She also stressed the importance of social relationships,
especially the parent-child relationship, and culture in
personality

Horney believed that disturbances in human relationships,
not sexual conflicts, were the cause of psychological
problems

Such problems arise from the attempt to deal with basic anxiety
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Horney described three patterns of behavior that
individuals use to defend against basic anxiety
Those who move toward other people have an excessive
need for approval and affection
Those who move against others have an excessive need for
power
Those who move away from other people have an excessive
need for independence and self-sufficiency

Horney contended that people with a healthy
personality are flexible in balancing these different
needs
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Horney also sharply disagreed with Freud’s
interpretation of female development, especially the
notion that women suffer from penis envy
She believed that what women envy in men is not their
penis, but their superior status in society
She contended that men often suffer from womb envy
Envying women’s capacity to bear children
She argued that men compensated for their minor role in
reproduction by creating artifacts and other external
accomplishments through their work
Alfred Adler
Humans motivated by
the need to overcome
inferiority and strive for
significance
Inferiority Complex:
Adler's term for
feelings of inferiority
that interfere with
development
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Alfred Adler: Feelings of inferiority and
striving for superiority
Austrian physician Adler broke away from Freud to
establish his own theory of personality
Adler believed that the most fundamental human motive
was striving for superiority
The desire to improve oneself, master challenges, and
move toward self-perfection and self-realization
This striving arises from universal feelings of inferiority
These feelings motivate people to compensate for
their real or imagined weaknesses
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Alfred Adler, continued
When people are unable to compensate for
specific weaknesses or when their feelings of
inferiority are excessive they can develop an
inferiority complex
A sense of inadequacy, weakness, and helplessness

At the other extreme, people can overcompensate
for their feelings of inferiority and develop a
superiority complex
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Evaluating Freud and the psychoanalytic
perspective on personality
Although Freudian theory has had a profound
impact on Western culture and on psychology, it
has been criticized on three major counts
1.
2.
3.

Inadequacy of evidence
Lack of testability
Sexism
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Inadequacy of evidence
1.

2.

Freud’s theory relies wholly on data derived from
his relatively small number of patients and from
self-analysis
It seems impossible to objectively assess
Freud’s “data”
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Lack of testability

Many psychoanalytic concepts are so vague and ambiguous that
they are impossible to measure or confirm objectively
Yet they are often impossible to disprove, because even seemingly
contradictory information can be used to support Freud’s theory

Psychoanalysis is better at explaining past behavior than at
predicting future behavior
Nonetheless, several key psychoanalytic ideas have been
substantiated by empirical research. Among them:
1.
2.
3.

Much of mental life is unconscious
Early childhood experiences have a critical influence on interpersonal
relationships and psychological adjustment in adulthood
People differ significantly in the degree to which they are able to
regulate their impulses, emotions, and thoughts toward adaptive and
socially acceptable ends
The Psychoanalytic
Perspective on Personality
Sexism
Horney and other female psychoanalysts have
pointed out that Freud’s theory uses male
psychology as a prototype
However, to Freud’s credit, women were quite active in
the early psychoanalytic movement
The Humanistic Perspective
on Personality
Emergence of the “Third Force”
In opposition to both psychoanalysis and
behaviorism, humanistic psychology was a
“third force” in psychology
This view of personality emphasizes human
potential and such uniquely human
characteristics as self-awareness and free will
It sees people as being innately good and focuses
on the healthy personality
The Humanistic Perspective
on Personality
Humanistic psychologists contended that the
most important factor in personality is the
individual’s conscious, subjective perception
of his or her self
Abraham Maslow was one of the founders of
humanistic psychology: key ideas included
the hierarch of needs and self-actualization
The Humanistic Perspective
on Personality
Carl Rogers: On becoming a person
Was one of the founders of humanistic
psychology, developed his personality theory from
his clinical experiences with his patients,
Whom he referred to as “clients” to emphasize their
active and voluntary participation in therapy
According to Rogers, the most basic human motive is the
actualizing tendency
The innate drive to maintain and enhance the human
organism
The Humanistic Perspective
on Personality
The cornerstone of Roger’s personality
theory is the idea of the self-concept

The set of perceptions and beliefs that you
hold about yourself
As children develop a greater sense of
self-awareness, there is an increasing
need for positive regard
The sense of being valued and loved by other
people
The Humanistic Perspective
on Personality
Rogers maintained that most parents provide their
children with conditional positive regard

The sense that the child is valued and loved only when the
child behaves in a way that is acceptable to others

Incongruence – a state in which a child’s self-concept conflicts
with his or her actual experience

Unconditional positive regard – the child’s sense of being
unconditionally loved and valued,
Even if she doesn’t conform to the standards and expectations
of others

Rogers did not advocate permissive parenting

He maintained that parents can disapprove of a child’s specific
behavior without completely rejecting the child herself
The Humanistic Perspective
on Personality
Through consistent experiences of
unconditional positive regard, one becomes a
fully functioning person
A person who has a flexible, constantly evolving
self-concept
Rather than defending against or distorting her
own thoughts or feelings, the person experiences
congruence
Her sense of self is consistent with her emotions and
experiences
The Humanistic Perspective
on Personality
Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective on
Personality

The humanistic perspective has been criticized on two
counts
1.

Humanistic theories are hard to validate or test scientifically

Because they tend to be based on philosophical assumptions or
clinical observations, rather than on empirical research

1.

Many psychologists believe that humanistic psychology’s view
of human nature is too optimistic

Although the influence of humanistic psychology
has waned since the 60’s and early 70’s, it has
made lasting contributions to psychotherapy,
counseling, education, and parenting
The Social Cognitive
Perspective on Personality
The idea that a person’s conscious thought
processes in different situations strongly influence his
or her actions is one important characteristic of the
social cognitive perspective on personality
This perspective differs from the psychoanalytic
and humanistic perspectives in several ways:
It relies heavily on experimental findings
It emphasizes conscious, self-regulated behavior
It emphasizes that our sense of self can vary
The Social Cognitive
Perspective on Personality
Albert Bandura & social cognitive theory
Several contemporary personality theorists
have embraced the social cognitive
approach to explaining personality;
Albert Bandura is well-known for observational
learning and self-efficacy
Both of these topics are central to social cognitive
theory
Emphasizes the social origins of thoughts and
actions and also stresses active cognitive
processes and the capacity for self-regulation
The Social Cognitive
Perspective on Personality
Bandura’s research has shown that we
observe:

The consequences that follow people’s actions
The rules and standards that apply to behavior in
specific situations, and
The ways in which people regulate their own
behavior

Reciprocal determinism – a model that
explains human functioning and personality
as caused by the interaction of behavioral,
cognitive, and environmental factors
The Social Cognitive
Perspective on Personality
Beliefs of self-efficacy

Collectively, a person’s cognitive skills, abilities,
and attitudes represent the person’s self-system
The most critical elements influencing the selfsystem are our beliefs in self-efficacy

The degree to which we are subjectively convinced of
our own capabilities and effectiveness in meeting the
demands of a particular situation

Developing self-efficacy begins in childhood, but it
continues as a lifelong process, with each stage of
the lifespan presenting new challenges
Self-Efficacy
Belief
you will do
well

Greater
effort &
persistence

Success
Self-Efficacy
Belief
you will do
poorly

Less
effort &
persistence

Failure
The Social Cognitive
Perspective on Personality
Evaluating the social cognitive perspective on
personality

A key strength of the social cognitive perspective on
personality is its grounding in empirical, laboratory research
It is built on research in learning, cognitive psychology, and
social psychology
Rather than on clinical impressions

Some psychologists feel the approach applies best to
laboratory research

The social cognitive perspective has been criticized for its
limited view of personality
Clinical data, rather than laboratory data, may be more
reflective of human personality
It ignores unconscious influences, emotions, or conflicts
The Social Cognitive
Perspective on Personality
Evaluating the social cognitive perspective on
personality
By emphasizing the self-regulation of behavior, the
social cognitive perspective places most of the
responsibility for our behavior on ourselves
And for the consequences we experience due to our
behavior
The Trait Perspective on
Personality
In contrast to the psychoanalytic, humanistic, and
social cognitive theories, which emphasize the
similarities among people, the trait approach to
personality focuses primarily on describing individual
differences
Trait theorists view the person as a unique combination of
personality characteristics or attributes, called traits
A relatively stable, enduring predisposition to behave in a
certain way

Trait theory is a theory of personality that focuses on
identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences
The Trait Perspective on
Personality
Surface traits and source traits
Surface traits – traits that lie on the surface and
can be easily inferred from observable behavior
Source traits – thought to be the most basic
dimension of personality;
A source trait can potentially give rise to a vast number
of surface traits
There are relatively few source traits, and these few
represent a universal way of describing individual
personality differences
The Trait Perspective on
Personality
Two Trait Theories: Cattell and Eysenck
Cattell used a statistical technique called
factor analysis to identify traits that were
most closely related to one another
Eventually reducing his list to 16 key
personality factors
He developed the widely used self-report personality
test, the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
(16 PF)
The Trait Perspective on
Personality
Two Trait Theories: Cattell and Eysenck

British psychologist Eysenck developed a trait
theory of personality that identifies three basic
dimensions of personality

The first dimension in introversion-extroversion, which is
the degree to which a person directs his or her energies
outward toward the environment and other people versus
inward toward his or her inner and self-focused
experiences
Introversion – quiet, solitary, reserved; avoiding new
experiences
Extroversion – outgoing and sociable, enjoying new
experiences and stimulating environments
The Trait Perspective on
Personality
Eysenck’s trait theory of personality:
three basic dimensions of personality
The second major dimension is
neuroticism-emotional stability
Neuroticism – a person’s predisposition to
become emotionally upset
Stability – a person’s predisposition to be
emotionally even
The Trait Perspective on
Personality
Eysenck’s trait theory of personality:
three basic dimensions of personality
The third major personality dimension,
which Eysenck identified in later research,
is called psychoticism
A person high in this trait is antisocial, cold,
hostile, and unconcerned about others
A person low in this trait is warm and caring
about others
The Trait Perspective on
Personality
The five-factor model
The consensus among many trait researchers is
that the essential building blocks of personality
can be described in terms of five basic personality
dimensions, sometimes called the “Big Five”
The five-factor model of personality represents the
structural organization of personality traits
The most commonly accepted five factors are:
extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness,
conscientiousness, and openness to experience
The 5 Factor Theory
Extraversion
Outgoing

Withdrawn

Neuroticism
Stable

Unstable
The 5 Factor Theory
Agreeableness
Low

High

Conscientiousness
Undependable

Dependable
The 5 Factor Theory
Openness to Experience
Closed

Open
The Trait Perspective on
Personality
The five-factor model, continued

Research has shown that traits are remarkably
stable across time
Traits are also generally consistent across
different situations
However, situational influences may affect the
expression of personality traits

However, remember that human behavior is the
result of a complex interaction between traits and
situations
The Trait Perspective on
Personality
Personality traits and genetics

Behavioral genetics – studies the effects of genes and
heredity on behavior
Using twins-reared-apart and adoption studies, behavioral
geneticists have found that certain personality traits are
substantially influenced by genetics
Especially extraversion and neuroticism
Openness to experience and conscientiousness are also
substantially influenced by genetics, although to a lesser
degree than extraversion and neuroticism

It seems that the influence of environmental factors is at
least equal to the influence of genetic factors
The Trait Perspective on
Personality
Evaluating the trait perspective on personality

Psychologists generally agree that people can be
described and compared in terms of basic personality traits
Like the other personality theories, the trait approach has
its weaknesses. Trait theories fail to:
1.
2.
3.

Truly explain human personality
Explain how or why individual differences developed
Address other important personality issues, like:
The basic motives that drive human personality
The role of unconscious mental processes
How beliefs about the self influence personality, or
How psychological change and growth occur
Assessing Personality:
Psychological Tests
Psychological test – a test that assesses a person’s
abilities, aptitudes, interests, or personality,
Based on a systematically obtained sample of behavior
A psychological test is useful insofar as it achieves two
basic goals:
1. It accurately and consistently reflects a person’s
characteristics on some dimension, and
2. It predicts a person’s future psychological functioning or
behavior
Two basic types of personality tests are projective tests
and self-report inventories
Assessing Personality:
Psychological Tests
Projective Tests

A type of personality test that involves a
person’s interpreting an ambiguous image

Used to assess unconscious motives, conflicts,
psychological defenses, and personality traits

The Rorschach Inkblot Test – a projective test using
inkblots, developed by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann
Rorschach in 1921
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – a projective
personality test that involves creating stories about
each of a series of ambiguous scenes
The Rorschach
Subject tells what each blot looks
like and what aspect of the blot
triggered that response
The Rorschach
Responses scored on use of parts vs.
wholes, movement, content, use of
color
Criticized for lack of reliability, low
validity (inability to predict behavior)
The TAT
Consists of 19 vague or
ambiguous drawings
Person describes what is
happening in each
The TAT
A TAT-like picture:
Criticized for low reliability & for
reflecting temporary states rather
than long-term traits
Assessing Personality:
Psychological Tests
Strengths and weaknesses of projective tests

The primary strength of projective tests is that they provide a
wealth of qualitative information about an individual’s
psychological functioning
Projective tests have several drawbacks:

The testing situation or the examiner’s behavior can influence a
person’s responses
The scoring of projective tests is highly subjective, requiring the
examiner to make numerous judgments about the person’s
responses
Projective tests often fail to produce consistent results
Projective tests are poor at predicting future behavior

Despite their widespread use, hundreds of studies of projective
tests seriously question their validity and reliability
Assessing Personality:
Psychological Tests
Self-report inventories

A type of psychological test in which a person’s responses
to standardized questions are compared to established
norms

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) – a
self-report inventory that assesses personality characteristics
and psychological disorders;
Used to assess both normal and disturbed populations

The California Personality Inventory (CPI) – a self-report
inventory that assesses personality characteristics in “normal”
populations
The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) – a selfreport inventory developed by Raymond Cattell that generates
a personality profile with ratings on 16 trait dimensions
The MMPI-2
The most widely-used inventory
Consists of 567 true-false
questions
MMPI-2: Clinical Scales
Hypochondriasis(Hs): Exaggerated concern
about physical health
Depression (D): Distress, depression
Hysteria (Hy): Physical symptoms w/ no
cause
Psychopathic Deviate (Pd): Disregard for
moral & social standards
Masculinity-Femininity (Mf): Having
traditional male or female traits
MMPI-2: Clinical Scales
Paranoia (Pa): Fear of others &
suspiciousness
Psychasthenia (Pt): Rigidity, tension, worry
Schizophrenia (Sc): bizarre & unusual
thinking
Hypomania (Ma): Excitability, impulsiveness
Social Introversion (S): Modesty, Shyness
MMPI-2: Validity Scales
Cannot Say (?): Evasiveness
Lying (L): Lying in order to look good
Infrequency (F): Lying in order to look bad
Correction (K): Defensiveness in filling out
the scale
Assessing Personality:
Psychological Tests
Strengths & Weaknesses of self-report inventories
The strengths include:

Standardization and the use of established norms
Reliability and validity, which, as a general rule, are greater
than those of projective tests

The weaknesses include:

Considerable evidence that despite inclusion of items designed
to detect deliberate deception,
People can still successfully fake responses and answer in
socially desirable ways
Some people are prone to responding in a set way, whether the
item accurately reflects them or not
People are not always accurate judges of their own behavior,
attitudes, or attributes
Assessing Personality:
Psychological Tests
Despite their weaknesses, personality
tests are generally useful strategies that
can provide insights about the
psychological makeup of people

Contenu connexe

Tendances (20)

Theories of personality
Theories of personalityTheories of personality
Theories of personality
 
Social Perception
Social PerceptionSocial Perception
Social Perception
 
Harrystack sullivan dr mo ali
Harrystack sullivan  dr mo aliHarrystack sullivan  dr mo ali
Harrystack sullivan dr mo ali
 
Lecture 4 jung c
Lecture 4 jung cLecture 4 jung c
Lecture 4 jung c
 
classical methods of psychophysics (Three methods)
classical methods of psychophysics (Three methods)classical methods of psychophysics (Three methods)
classical methods of psychophysics (Three methods)
 
Psychoanalytic Therapy
Psychoanalytic TherapyPsychoanalytic Therapy
Psychoanalytic Therapy
 
Psychodynamic Approach of Counseling
Psychodynamic Approach of CounselingPsychodynamic Approach of Counseling
Psychodynamic Approach of Counseling
 
Attribution
AttributionAttribution
Attribution
 
Coping and Behavior Modification
Coping and Behavior ModificationCoping and Behavior Modification
Coping and Behavior Modification
 
Motivation
MotivationMotivation
Motivation
 
psychodynamic psychotherapy
psychodynamic psychotherapypsychodynamic psychotherapy
psychodynamic psychotherapy
 
Chapter 13 Personality
Chapter 13 PersonalityChapter 13 Personality
Chapter 13 Personality
 
Motivation and its theories
Motivation and its theoriesMotivation and its theories
Motivation and its theories
 
Behavioural approach to abnormality
Behavioural approach to abnormalityBehavioural approach to abnormality
Behavioural approach to abnormality
 
December 5 - Humanistic and Existential Psychology.pptx
December 5 -  Humanistic and Existential Psychology.pptxDecember 5 -  Humanistic and Existential Psychology.pptx
December 5 - Humanistic and Existential Psychology.pptx
 
Motivation,Types and Theories of motivation
Motivation,Types and Theories of motivationMotivation,Types and Theories of motivation
Motivation,Types and Theories of motivation
 
Attribution theory
Attribution theoryAttribution theory
Attribution theory
 
Sociocultural approach
Sociocultural approachSociocultural approach
Sociocultural approach
 
What Is Motivation
What Is MotivationWhat Is Motivation
What Is Motivation
 
Prosocial Behavior
Prosocial BehaviorProsocial Behavior
Prosocial Behavior
 

Similaire à Personality

Similaire à Personality (20)

Sigmund Freud and The Psychoanalytic Therapy 101
Sigmund Freud and The Psychoanalytic Therapy 101Sigmund Freud and The Psychoanalytic Therapy 101
Sigmund Freud and The Psychoanalytic Therapy 101
 
psychoanalytic therapy.pdf
psychoanalytic therapy.pdfpsychoanalytic therapy.pdf
psychoanalytic therapy.pdf
 
PSY 150 403 Chapter 12 SLIDES
PSY 150 403 Chapter 12 SLIDESPSY 150 403 Chapter 12 SLIDES
PSY 150 403 Chapter 12 SLIDES
 
Five Key Concepts Of Psychoanalysis
Five Key Concepts Of PsychoanalysisFive Key Concepts Of Psychoanalysis
Five Key Concepts Of Psychoanalysis
 
Psychoanalytic Theory Research Paper
Psychoanalytic Theory Research PaperPsychoanalytic Theory Research Paper
Psychoanalytic Theory Research Paper
 
Psychodynamic Model
Psychodynamic ModelPsychodynamic Model
Psychodynamic Model
 
Essay About Freud’S Psychoanalytic Theory
Essay About Freud’S Psychoanalytic TheoryEssay About Freud’S Psychoanalytic Theory
Essay About Freud’S Psychoanalytic Theory
 
Personality
PersonalityPersonality
Personality
 
Chapter15
Chapter15Chapter15
Chapter15
 
Ch-3 Psychodynamic perspective.pptx
Ch-3 Psychodynamic perspective.pptxCh-3 Psychodynamic perspective.pptx
Ch-3 Psychodynamic perspective.pptx
 
PDC prsentation
PDC prsentationPDC prsentation
PDC prsentation
 
Personality1 (1)
Personality1 (1)Personality1 (1)
Personality1 (1)
 
Personality devlopment
Personality devlopmentPersonality devlopment
Personality devlopment
 
Theories of Personality.pptx
Theories of Personality.pptxTheories of Personality.pptx
Theories of Personality.pptx
 
Psychoanalytic therapy dr veera balaji
Psychoanalytic therapy dr veera balajiPsychoanalytic therapy dr veera balaji
Psychoanalytic therapy dr veera balaji
 
Theories of Personality
Theories of PersonalityTheories of Personality
Theories of Personality
 
Personality freud - built environment
Personality freud - built environment Personality freud - built environment
Personality freud - built environment
 
Lesson 1_Personality Psych.ppt
Lesson 1_Personality Psych.pptLesson 1_Personality Psych.ppt
Lesson 1_Personality Psych.ppt
 
1589181759OWOEYE_ABUAD_PSYCHOLOGY_1.ppt
1589181759OWOEYE_ABUAD_PSYCHOLOGY_1.ppt1589181759OWOEYE_ABUAD_PSYCHOLOGY_1.ppt
1589181759OWOEYE_ABUAD_PSYCHOLOGY_1.ppt
 
Personality
PersonalityPersonality
Personality
 

Dernier

Slides CapTechTalks Webinar March 2024 Joshua Sinai.pptx
Slides CapTechTalks Webinar March 2024 Joshua Sinai.pptxSlides CapTechTalks Webinar March 2024 Joshua Sinai.pptx
Slides CapTechTalks Webinar March 2024 Joshua Sinai.pptxCapitolTechU
 
Department of Health Compounder Question ‍Solution 2022.pdf
Department of Health Compounder Question ‍Solution 2022.pdfDepartment of Health Compounder Question ‍Solution 2022.pdf
Department of Health Compounder Question ‍Solution 2022.pdfMohonDas
 
Work Experience for psp3 portfolio sasha
Work Experience for psp3 portfolio sashaWork Experience for psp3 portfolio sasha
Work Experience for psp3 portfolio sashasashalaycock03
 
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxThe basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxheathfieldcps1
 
Protein Structure - threading Protein modelling pptx
Protein Structure - threading Protein modelling pptxProtein Structure - threading Protein modelling pptx
Protein Structure - threading Protein modelling pptxvidhisharma994099
 
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdfJayanti Pande
 
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptxmary850239
 
ARTICULAR DISC OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
ARTICULAR DISC OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINTARTICULAR DISC OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
ARTICULAR DISC OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINTDR. SNEHA NAIR
 
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17Celine George
 
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...raviapr7
 
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...CaraSkikne1
 
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptx
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptxPrescribed medication order and communication skills.pptx
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptxraviapr7
 
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17Celine George
 
HED Office Sohayok Exam Question Solution 2023.pdf
HED Office Sohayok Exam Question Solution 2023.pdfHED Office Sohayok Exam Question Solution 2023.pdf
HED Office Sohayok Exam Question Solution 2023.pdfMohonDas
 
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICEQuality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICESayali Powar
 
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17Celine George
 
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.EnglishCEIPdeSigeiro
 
Clinical Pharmacy Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptx
Clinical Pharmacy  Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptxClinical Pharmacy  Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptx
Clinical Pharmacy Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptxraviapr7
 

Dernier (20)

Slides CapTechTalks Webinar March 2024 Joshua Sinai.pptx
Slides CapTechTalks Webinar March 2024 Joshua Sinai.pptxSlides CapTechTalks Webinar March 2024 Joshua Sinai.pptx
Slides CapTechTalks Webinar March 2024 Joshua Sinai.pptx
 
Department of Health Compounder Question ‍Solution 2022.pdf
Department of Health Compounder Question ‍Solution 2022.pdfDepartment of Health Compounder Question ‍Solution 2022.pdf
Department of Health Compounder Question ‍Solution 2022.pdf
 
Work Experience for psp3 portfolio sasha
Work Experience for psp3 portfolio sashaWork Experience for psp3 portfolio sasha
Work Experience for psp3 portfolio sasha
 
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxThe basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
 
Protein Structure - threading Protein modelling pptx
Protein Structure - threading Protein modelling pptxProtein Structure - threading Protein modelling pptx
Protein Structure - threading Protein modelling pptx
 
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf
 
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptx
 
Prelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quiz
Prelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quizPrelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quiz
Prelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quiz
 
ARTICULAR DISC OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
ARTICULAR DISC OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINTARTICULAR DISC OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
ARTICULAR DISC OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
 
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
 
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...
 
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
 
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptx
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptxPrescribed medication order and communication skills.pptx
Prescribed medication order and communication skills.pptx
 
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
 
HED Office Sohayok Exam Question Solution 2023.pdf
HED Office Sohayok Exam Question Solution 2023.pdfHED Office Sohayok Exam Question Solution 2023.pdf
HED Office Sohayok Exam Question Solution 2023.pdf
 
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICEQuality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE
 
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
 
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
 
Finals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quiz
Finals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quizFinals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quiz
Finals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quiz
 
Clinical Pharmacy Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptx
Clinical Pharmacy  Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptxClinical Pharmacy  Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptx
Clinical Pharmacy Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy, Concept of clinical pptx
 

Personality

  • 2. Introduction: What is Personality? An individual’s unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving Personality – an attempt to describe and explain how people are similar, how they are different, and why every individual is unique Tries to explain the whole person
  • 3. Introduction: What is Personality? Personality theories can be roughly grouped under four basic perspectives: The psychoanalytic perspective – emphasizes the importance of unconscious processes and the influence of early childhood experiences The humanistic perspective – represents an optimistic look at human nature, emphasizing the self and the fulfillment of a person’s unique potential The social cognitive perspective – emphasizing learning and conscious cognitive processes, including the importance of beliefs about the self, goal-setting, and self-regulation The trait perspective – emphasizes the description and measurement of specific personality differences among
  • 4. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, was one of the most influential figures of the twentieth century Psychoanalysis – the theory of personality that stresses the influence of: Unconscious mental processes Sexual and aggressive instincts, and The enduring effects of early childhood experience on personality
  • 6. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality The life of Sigmund Freud Freud studied medicine, became a physician, and then proved himself an outstanding physiological researcher However, prospects for an academic career in scientific research were very poor, especially for a Jew in Vienna, which was intensely antiSemitic at that time
  • 7. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Influences in the development of Freud’s ideas Joseph Breuer – a highly respected physician, who found that when patients were hypnotized and allowed to talk freely about a given symptom, forgotten memories of traumatic events would emerge After patients freely expressed the pent-up emotions associated with the events, symptoms would disappear A process Breuer call catharsis Freud dropped the use of hypnosis and developed his own technique of free association to help patients uncover forgotten memories Freud’s patients would spontaneously report their uncensored thoughts, mental images, and feelings as they came to mind
  • 8. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Influences in the development of Freud’s ideas Breuer and Freud described several of their case studies in their landmark book Studies on Hysteria; published in 1895, it marked the beginning of psychoanalysis In 1900, Freud published what many consider his most important work, The Interpretation of Dreams Freud came to focus on humanity’s destructive tendencies; Freud wrote Civilization and Its Discontents, in which he applied his psychoanalytic perspective to civilization as a whole The central theme: human nature and civilization are in basic conflict – a conflict that cannot be resolved
  • 9. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Freud’s Dynamic Theory of Personality Freud saw personality and behavior as resulting from a constant interplay between conflicting psychological forces that operate at three different levels of awareness 1. 2. 3. All the thoughts, feelings, and sensations that you are aware of at this particular moment represent the conscious level The preconscious contains information of which you’re not currently aware, but is easily capable of entering your consciousness, such as childhood memories or your social security number The bulk of Freud’s psychological iceberg is made up of the unconscious, which lies below the waterline of the preconscious and the conscious We are not directly aware of these submerged thought, feelings, wishes, and drives But the unconscious exerts an enormous influence on our conscious thoughts and behavior
  • 10. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Freud’s Dynamic Theory of Personality Freud believed that unconscious material often seeps through to the conscious level in distorted disguised, or symbolic forms Dream analysis was particularly important to Freud Beneath the surface images (manifest content) of a dream lies the true, hidden, unconscious meaning of the dream symbols (latent content) The unconscious also can be revealed in unintentional actions, Such as accidents, mistakes, instances of forgetting and inadvertent slips of the tongue (often referred to as “Freudian Slips”)
  • 11. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality The structure of personality Psychological energy evolves to form the three basic structures of personality – the id, the ego, and the superego. These are distinct psychological processes. The id, the most primitive part of the personality, is entirely unconscious and present at birth – it is completely immune to logic, values, morality, danger, and the demands of the external world Two conflicting instinctual drives fuel the id: the life instinct and the death instinct 1. Eros – the life instinct; consists of biological urges that perpetuate the existence of the individual and the species (hunger, thirst, physical comfort, sexuality) 2. Thanatos – the death instinct; destructive energy that is reflected in aggressive, reckless, and life-threatening behaviors, including self-destructive actions
  • 12. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality The id is rules by the pleasure principle The relentless drive toward immediate satisfaction of the instinctual urges, especially sexual urges. The id strives to increase pleasure, reduce tension, and avoid pain The newborn infant is completely driven by the pleasure principle
  • 13. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality The structure of personality A new dimension of personality develops from part of the id’s psychological energy – the ego Partly conscious, the ego represents the organized, rational, and planning dimensions of personality The mediator between the id’s instinctual demands and the restrictions of the outer world, the ego operates on the reality principle The capacity to postpone gratification until the appropriate time or circumstances exist in the external world
  • 14. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality The ego is the pragmatic part of the personality that learns various compromises to reduce the tension of the id’s instinctual urges. If the ego cannot identify an acceptable compromise to satisfy an instinctual urge, it can repress the impulse Remove it from conscious awareness
  • 15. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality The structure of personality Gradually, social values move from being externally imposed demands to being internalized rules and values By age 5-6, young children develop an internal, parental voice that is partly conscious – the superego As the internal representation of parental and societal values, the superego evaluates the acceptability of behavior and thoughts, then praises or admonishes
  • 17. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality The ego defense mechanisms: unconscious self-deceptions When the demands of the id or superego threaten to overwhelm the ego, anxiety results If a realistic solution or compromise is not possible, the ego may temporarily reduce anxiety by distorting thoughts or perceptions of reality through processes Freud called ego defense mechanisms By resorting to these largely unconscious selfdeceptions, the ego can maintain an integrated sense of self While searching for a more acceptable and realistic solution to a conflict between the id and superego
  • 18. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Ego defenses The most fundamental ego defense mechanism is repression – unconscious forgetting Unbeknownst to the person, anxiety-producing thoughts, feelings, or impulses are pushed out of conscious awareness into the unconscious Displacement – impulses are redirected to a substitute object or person Usually one less threatening or dangerous than the original source of conflict The use of defense mechanisms is very common Many psychologically healthy people temporarily use ego defense mechanisms to deal with stressful events When they delay or interfere with our use of more constructive coping strategies, they can be counterproductive
  • 19. Freudian Theory: Defense Defense Mechanisms Methods for dealing with anxiety Freud thought some more mature than others Denial Sublimation Projection Reaction Formation
  • 20. Denial Refusing to accept that the feeling is present or that the event occurred A very primitive mechanism Example: preschoolers will convince themselves they didn't do something they wish they hadn't
  • 21. Projection Attributing one's undesirable traits or actions to others, so they become the problem instead of you Example from a failing student: "I'm not worried about me, but I'd hate to see Ellen flunk--she's so fragile"
  • 22. Reaction Formation Taking actions opposite to one's feelings in order to deny the reality of the feelings Example: A woman says she can’t stand her boss, when in reality she is in love with him
  • 23. Sublimation The most mature mechanism Redirecting anxiety-causing impulses into socially acceptable actions Example: Dealing with anxiety over a final by engaging in vigorous physical activity
  • 24. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Personality development: The psychosexual stages Freud believed that people progress through five psychosexual stages of development The foundations of the adult personality are established during the first six years of life, as the child progresses through the oral, anal, and phallic stages The latency stage occurs during later childhood and the fifth and final stage, the genital stage, begins in adolescence
  • 25. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality In Freud’s theory, the psychosexual stages are age-related developmental periods in which sexual impulses are focused on different bodily zones And are expressed through activities associated with those areas
  • 26. Freudian Theory: Stages Psychosexual Stages (source of libido satisfaction) Oral (0-1 year) Anal (1-3 years) Phallic (3-6 years) Latency (6-puberty) Genital (from puberty)
  • 27. Freudian Theory: Stages Oral Stage: Libido gratification comes from oral exploration of the world Infant learns to trust in others, esp. for food Oral Personality: Problems in the oral stage supposedly lead to pessimism about the world, hostility or passivity
  • 28. Freudian Theory: Stages Anal Stage: Kids learn about delay of gratification Kids gain pleasure and libido satisfaction from being in control Anal Personality: Problems in the anal stage supposedly lead to either excessive orderliness or excessive messiness
  • 29. Freudian Theory: Stages Phallic Stage: Freud believed sex-role identification occurred Mechanisms included castration anxiety (boys) & penis envy (girls) Phallic Personality: Problems in the phallic stage supposedly lead to sex-role identification problems, promiscuity, vanity, or excessive chastity
  • 30. Freudian Theory: Stages Latency Stage: A time of focus on achievement and mastery of skills Libido is channeled into mastery activities Freud thought little of interest happened here Others have argued the sense of self-esteem is established here
  • 31. Freudian Theory: Stages Genital Stage: The time of mature personality, intimacy with others Libido satisfied by adult-type sexual activity
  • 32. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Fixation – unresolved developmental conflicts At each psychosexual stage, according to Freud, the infant or young child is faced with a developmental conflict that must be successfully resolved in order to move on to the next stage If frustrated, the child will be left with feelings of unmet needs characteristic of that stage; If overindulged, the child may be reluctant to move on to the next stage In either case, the result of an unresolved developmental conflict is fixation at a particular stage
  • 33. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality The Oedipus complex: A psychosexual drama The most critical conflict occurs during the phallic stage Freud believed that the child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and hostility toward the same-sex parent Freud called this the Oedipus complex – named after the hero of a Greek myth
  • 34. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality The Oedipus complex: A psychosexual drama The little boy feels hostility and jealously toward his father, but he realizes that his father is more physically powerful The boy experiences castration anxiety To resolve the Oedipus complex, the little boy ultimately joins forces with his former enemy resorting to the defense mechanism of identification He imitates and internalizes his father’s values, attitudes, and mannerisms The little girl discovers that little boys have a penis and that she does not She feels a sense of deprivation and loss that Freud termed penis envy The little girl blames her mother and develops contempt for her However, in her attempt to take her mother’s place with her father, she also identifies with her mother
  • 35. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality The Neo-Freudians: Freud’s descendents and dissenters In general, the neo-Freudians disagreed with Freud on three key points Freud’s belief that behavior was primarily motivated by sexual urges Freud’s contention that personality is fundamentally determined by early childhood experiences Freud’s generally pessimistic view of human nature and society
  • 36. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Carl Jung: Archetypes and the collective unconscious Swiss psychiatrist Carl G. Jung broke with Freud to develop his own psychoanalytic theory of personality He believed that people are motivated by a more general psychological energy that pushes them to achieve psychological growth, self-realization, and psychic wholeness and harmony He also believed that personality continues to develop in significant ways throughout the lifespan
  • 37. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Carl Jung, continued Jung believed that the deepest part of the individual psyche is the collective unconscious Shared by all people and reflects humanity’s collective evolutionary history Contained in the collective unconscious are the archetypes The mental images of universal human instincts, themes and preoccupations Jung was the first to describe two basic personality types: Introverts – who focus their attention inward Extroverts – who turn their attention and energy toward the outside world
  • 38. Karen Horney Stressed need for safety & satisfaction Childhood frustration may lead to development of basic anxiety & neurosis Tyranny of the Should: Horney's term for focusing on an unrealistic, perfect self-image that leads to dissatisfaction
  • 39. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Karen Horney: basic anxiety and “womb envy” German-born American psychoanalyst Karen Horney came to stress the importance of cultural and social factors in personality development, matters that Freud had largely ignored She also stressed the importance of social relationships, especially the parent-child relationship, and culture in personality Horney believed that disturbances in human relationships, not sexual conflicts, were the cause of psychological problems Such problems arise from the attempt to deal with basic anxiety
  • 40. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Horney described three patterns of behavior that individuals use to defend against basic anxiety Those who move toward other people have an excessive need for approval and affection Those who move against others have an excessive need for power Those who move away from other people have an excessive need for independence and self-sufficiency Horney contended that people with a healthy personality are flexible in balancing these different needs
  • 41. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Horney also sharply disagreed with Freud’s interpretation of female development, especially the notion that women suffer from penis envy She believed that what women envy in men is not their penis, but their superior status in society She contended that men often suffer from womb envy Envying women’s capacity to bear children She argued that men compensated for their minor role in reproduction by creating artifacts and other external accomplishments through their work
  • 42. Alfred Adler Humans motivated by the need to overcome inferiority and strive for significance Inferiority Complex: Adler's term for feelings of inferiority that interfere with development
  • 43. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Alfred Adler: Feelings of inferiority and striving for superiority Austrian physician Adler broke away from Freud to establish his own theory of personality Adler believed that the most fundamental human motive was striving for superiority The desire to improve oneself, master challenges, and move toward self-perfection and self-realization This striving arises from universal feelings of inferiority These feelings motivate people to compensate for their real or imagined weaknesses
  • 44. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Alfred Adler, continued When people are unable to compensate for specific weaknesses or when their feelings of inferiority are excessive they can develop an inferiority complex A sense of inadequacy, weakness, and helplessness At the other extreme, people can overcompensate for their feelings of inferiority and develop a superiority complex
  • 45. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Evaluating Freud and the psychoanalytic perspective on personality Although Freudian theory has had a profound impact on Western culture and on psychology, it has been criticized on three major counts 1. 2. 3. Inadequacy of evidence Lack of testability Sexism
  • 46. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Inadequacy of evidence 1. 2. Freud’s theory relies wholly on data derived from his relatively small number of patients and from self-analysis It seems impossible to objectively assess Freud’s “data”
  • 47. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Lack of testability Many psychoanalytic concepts are so vague and ambiguous that they are impossible to measure or confirm objectively Yet they are often impossible to disprove, because even seemingly contradictory information can be used to support Freud’s theory Psychoanalysis is better at explaining past behavior than at predicting future behavior Nonetheless, several key psychoanalytic ideas have been substantiated by empirical research. Among them: 1. 2. 3. Much of mental life is unconscious Early childhood experiences have a critical influence on interpersonal relationships and psychological adjustment in adulthood People differ significantly in the degree to which they are able to regulate their impulses, emotions, and thoughts toward adaptive and socially acceptable ends
  • 48. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Sexism Horney and other female psychoanalysts have pointed out that Freud’s theory uses male psychology as a prototype However, to Freud’s credit, women were quite active in the early psychoanalytic movement
  • 49. The Humanistic Perspective on Personality Emergence of the “Third Force” In opposition to both psychoanalysis and behaviorism, humanistic psychology was a “third force” in psychology This view of personality emphasizes human potential and such uniquely human characteristics as self-awareness and free will It sees people as being innately good and focuses on the healthy personality
  • 50. The Humanistic Perspective on Personality Humanistic psychologists contended that the most important factor in personality is the individual’s conscious, subjective perception of his or her self Abraham Maslow was one of the founders of humanistic psychology: key ideas included the hierarch of needs and self-actualization
  • 51. The Humanistic Perspective on Personality Carl Rogers: On becoming a person Was one of the founders of humanistic psychology, developed his personality theory from his clinical experiences with his patients, Whom he referred to as “clients” to emphasize their active and voluntary participation in therapy According to Rogers, the most basic human motive is the actualizing tendency The innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organism
  • 52. The Humanistic Perspective on Personality The cornerstone of Roger’s personality theory is the idea of the self-concept The set of perceptions and beliefs that you hold about yourself As children develop a greater sense of self-awareness, there is an increasing need for positive regard The sense of being valued and loved by other people
  • 53. The Humanistic Perspective on Personality Rogers maintained that most parents provide their children with conditional positive regard The sense that the child is valued and loved only when the child behaves in a way that is acceptable to others Incongruence – a state in which a child’s self-concept conflicts with his or her actual experience Unconditional positive regard – the child’s sense of being unconditionally loved and valued, Even if she doesn’t conform to the standards and expectations of others Rogers did not advocate permissive parenting He maintained that parents can disapprove of a child’s specific behavior without completely rejecting the child herself
  • 54. The Humanistic Perspective on Personality Through consistent experiences of unconditional positive regard, one becomes a fully functioning person A person who has a flexible, constantly evolving self-concept Rather than defending against or distorting her own thoughts or feelings, the person experiences congruence Her sense of self is consistent with her emotions and experiences
  • 55. The Humanistic Perspective on Personality Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective on Personality The humanistic perspective has been criticized on two counts 1. Humanistic theories are hard to validate or test scientifically Because they tend to be based on philosophical assumptions or clinical observations, rather than on empirical research 1. Many psychologists believe that humanistic psychology’s view of human nature is too optimistic Although the influence of humanistic psychology has waned since the 60’s and early 70’s, it has made lasting contributions to psychotherapy, counseling, education, and parenting
  • 56. The Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality The idea that a person’s conscious thought processes in different situations strongly influence his or her actions is one important characteristic of the social cognitive perspective on personality This perspective differs from the psychoanalytic and humanistic perspectives in several ways: It relies heavily on experimental findings It emphasizes conscious, self-regulated behavior It emphasizes that our sense of self can vary
  • 57. The Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality Albert Bandura & social cognitive theory Several contemporary personality theorists have embraced the social cognitive approach to explaining personality; Albert Bandura is well-known for observational learning and self-efficacy Both of these topics are central to social cognitive theory Emphasizes the social origins of thoughts and actions and also stresses active cognitive processes and the capacity for self-regulation
  • 58. The Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality Bandura’s research has shown that we observe: The consequences that follow people’s actions The rules and standards that apply to behavior in specific situations, and The ways in which people regulate their own behavior Reciprocal determinism – a model that explains human functioning and personality as caused by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors
  • 59. The Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality Beliefs of self-efficacy Collectively, a person’s cognitive skills, abilities, and attitudes represent the person’s self-system The most critical elements influencing the selfsystem are our beliefs in self-efficacy The degree to which we are subjectively convinced of our own capabilities and effectiveness in meeting the demands of a particular situation Developing self-efficacy begins in childhood, but it continues as a lifelong process, with each stage of the lifespan presenting new challenges
  • 62. The Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality Evaluating the social cognitive perspective on personality A key strength of the social cognitive perspective on personality is its grounding in empirical, laboratory research It is built on research in learning, cognitive psychology, and social psychology Rather than on clinical impressions Some psychologists feel the approach applies best to laboratory research The social cognitive perspective has been criticized for its limited view of personality Clinical data, rather than laboratory data, may be more reflective of human personality It ignores unconscious influences, emotions, or conflicts
  • 63. The Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality Evaluating the social cognitive perspective on personality By emphasizing the self-regulation of behavior, the social cognitive perspective places most of the responsibility for our behavior on ourselves And for the consequences we experience due to our behavior
  • 64. The Trait Perspective on Personality In contrast to the psychoanalytic, humanistic, and social cognitive theories, which emphasize the similarities among people, the trait approach to personality focuses primarily on describing individual differences Trait theorists view the person as a unique combination of personality characteristics or attributes, called traits A relatively stable, enduring predisposition to behave in a certain way Trait theory is a theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences
  • 65. The Trait Perspective on Personality Surface traits and source traits Surface traits – traits that lie on the surface and can be easily inferred from observable behavior Source traits – thought to be the most basic dimension of personality; A source trait can potentially give rise to a vast number of surface traits There are relatively few source traits, and these few represent a universal way of describing individual personality differences
  • 66. The Trait Perspective on Personality Two Trait Theories: Cattell and Eysenck Cattell used a statistical technique called factor analysis to identify traits that were most closely related to one another Eventually reducing his list to 16 key personality factors He developed the widely used self-report personality test, the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF)
  • 67. The Trait Perspective on Personality Two Trait Theories: Cattell and Eysenck British psychologist Eysenck developed a trait theory of personality that identifies three basic dimensions of personality The first dimension in introversion-extroversion, which is the degree to which a person directs his or her energies outward toward the environment and other people versus inward toward his or her inner and self-focused experiences Introversion – quiet, solitary, reserved; avoiding new experiences Extroversion – outgoing and sociable, enjoying new experiences and stimulating environments
  • 68. The Trait Perspective on Personality Eysenck’s trait theory of personality: three basic dimensions of personality The second major dimension is neuroticism-emotional stability Neuroticism – a person’s predisposition to become emotionally upset Stability – a person’s predisposition to be emotionally even
  • 69. The Trait Perspective on Personality Eysenck’s trait theory of personality: three basic dimensions of personality The third major personality dimension, which Eysenck identified in later research, is called psychoticism A person high in this trait is antisocial, cold, hostile, and unconcerned about others A person low in this trait is warm and caring about others
  • 70. The Trait Perspective on Personality The five-factor model The consensus among many trait researchers is that the essential building blocks of personality can be described in terms of five basic personality dimensions, sometimes called the “Big Five” The five-factor model of personality represents the structural organization of personality traits The most commonly accepted five factors are: extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience
  • 71. The 5 Factor Theory Extraversion Outgoing Withdrawn Neuroticism Stable Unstable
  • 72. The 5 Factor Theory Agreeableness Low High Conscientiousness Undependable Dependable
  • 73. The 5 Factor Theory Openness to Experience Closed Open
  • 74. The Trait Perspective on Personality The five-factor model, continued Research has shown that traits are remarkably stable across time Traits are also generally consistent across different situations However, situational influences may affect the expression of personality traits However, remember that human behavior is the result of a complex interaction between traits and situations
  • 75. The Trait Perspective on Personality Personality traits and genetics Behavioral genetics – studies the effects of genes and heredity on behavior Using twins-reared-apart and adoption studies, behavioral geneticists have found that certain personality traits are substantially influenced by genetics Especially extraversion and neuroticism Openness to experience and conscientiousness are also substantially influenced by genetics, although to a lesser degree than extraversion and neuroticism It seems that the influence of environmental factors is at least equal to the influence of genetic factors
  • 76. The Trait Perspective on Personality Evaluating the trait perspective on personality Psychologists generally agree that people can be described and compared in terms of basic personality traits Like the other personality theories, the trait approach has its weaknesses. Trait theories fail to: 1. 2. 3. Truly explain human personality Explain how or why individual differences developed Address other important personality issues, like: The basic motives that drive human personality The role of unconscious mental processes How beliefs about the self influence personality, or How psychological change and growth occur
  • 77. Assessing Personality: Psychological Tests Psychological test – a test that assesses a person’s abilities, aptitudes, interests, or personality, Based on a systematically obtained sample of behavior A psychological test is useful insofar as it achieves two basic goals: 1. It accurately and consistently reflects a person’s characteristics on some dimension, and 2. It predicts a person’s future psychological functioning or behavior Two basic types of personality tests are projective tests and self-report inventories
  • 78. Assessing Personality: Psychological Tests Projective Tests A type of personality test that involves a person’s interpreting an ambiguous image Used to assess unconscious motives, conflicts, psychological defenses, and personality traits The Rorschach Inkblot Test – a projective test using inkblots, developed by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in 1921 The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – a projective personality test that involves creating stories about each of a series of ambiguous scenes
  • 79. The Rorschach Subject tells what each blot looks like and what aspect of the blot triggered that response
  • 80. The Rorschach Responses scored on use of parts vs. wholes, movement, content, use of color Criticized for lack of reliability, low validity (inability to predict behavior)
  • 81. The TAT Consists of 19 vague or ambiguous drawings Person describes what is happening in each
  • 82. The TAT A TAT-like picture: Criticized for low reliability & for reflecting temporary states rather than long-term traits
  • 83. Assessing Personality: Psychological Tests Strengths and weaknesses of projective tests The primary strength of projective tests is that they provide a wealth of qualitative information about an individual’s psychological functioning Projective tests have several drawbacks: The testing situation or the examiner’s behavior can influence a person’s responses The scoring of projective tests is highly subjective, requiring the examiner to make numerous judgments about the person’s responses Projective tests often fail to produce consistent results Projective tests are poor at predicting future behavior Despite their widespread use, hundreds of studies of projective tests seriously question their validity and reliability
  • 84. Assessing Personality: Psychological Tests Self-report inventories A type of psychological test in which a person’s responses to standardized questions are compared to established norms The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) – a self-report inventory that assesses personality characteristics and psychological disorders; Used to assess both normal and disturbed populations The California Personality Inventory (CPI) – a self-report inventory that assesses personality characteristics in “normal” populations The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) – a selfreport inventory developed by Raymond Cattell that generates a personality profile with ratings on 16 trait dimensions
  • 85. The MMPI-2 The most widely-used inventory Consists of 567 true-false questions
  • 86. MMPI-2: Clinical Scales Hypochondriasis(Hs): Exaggerated concern about physical health Depression (D): Distress, depression Hysteria (Hy): Physical symptoms w/ no cause Psychopathic Deviate (Pd): Disregard for moral & social standards Masculinity-Femininity (Mf): Having traditional male or female traits
  • 87. MMPI-2: Clinical Scales Paranoia (Pa): Fear of others & suspiciousness Psychasthenia (Pt): Rigidity, tension, worry Schizophrenia (Sc): bizarre & unusual thinking Hypomania (Ma): Excitability, impulsiveness Social Introversion (S): Modesty, Shyness
  • 88. MMPI-2: Validity Scales Cannot Say (?): Evasiveness Lying (L): Lying in order to look good Infrequency (F): Lying in order to look bad Correction (K): Defensiveness in filling out the scale
  • 89. Assessing Personality: Psychological Tests Strengths & Weaknesses of self-report inventories The strengths include: Standardization and the use of established norms Reliability and validity, which, as a general rule, are greater than those of projective tests The weaknesses include: Considerable evidence that despite inclusion of items designed to detect deliberate deception, People can still successfully fake responses and answer in socially desirable ways Some people are prone to responding in a set way, whether the item accurately reflects them or not People are not always accurate judges of their own behavior, attitudes, or attributes
  • 90. Assessing Personality: Psychological Tests Despite their weaknesses, personality tests are generally useful strategies that can provide insights about the psychological makeup of people