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Biology in Focus - Chapter 36
1.
CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN
FOCUS © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson • Reece Lecture Presentations by Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge 36 Reproduction and Development
2.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Overview: Pairing Up for Sexual Reproduction Each sea slug produces sperm and eggs and thus acts as both mother and father to the next generation Animal reproduction takes many forms A population outlives its members only by reproduction, the generation of new individuals from existing ones
3.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.1
4.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Concept 36.1: Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom Sexual reproduction is the creation of an offspring by fusion of a male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) to form a zygote Asexual reproduction is the creation of offspring without the fusion of egg and sperm
5.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction Many invertebrates reproduce asexually by budding, in which new individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones Also common among invertebrates is fission, the separation of a parent organism into two individuals of approximately equal size Video: Hydra Budding
6.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.2
7.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Fragmentation is breaking of the body into pieces, some or all of which develop into adults Fragmentation must be accompanied by regeneration, regrowth of lost body parts Parthenogenesis is the development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg
8.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Sexual Reproduction: An Evolutionary Enigma Sexual females have half as many daughters as asexual females; this is the “twofold cost” of sexual reproduction Despite this, almost all eukaryotic species reproduce sexually
9.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.3-1 Asexual reproduction Female Female Male Sexual reproduction Generation 1 Generation 2
10.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.3-2 Asexual reproduction Female Female Male Sexual reproduction Generation 1 Generation 2 Generation 3
11.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.3-3 Asexual reproduction Female Female Male Sexual reproduction Generation 1 Generation 2 Generation 3 Generation 4
12.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Sexual reproduction results in genetic recombination The resulting increased variation among offspring may enhance the reproductive success of parents in changing environments
13.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Reproductive Cycles Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles related to changing seasons Reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones and environmental cues Because seasonal temperature is often an important cue in reproduction, climate change can decrease reproductive success
14.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.4
15.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. In some species of whiptail lizards, the members of breeding pairs alternate roles Reproduction is exclusively asexual, and there are no males However, courtship and mating behavior still take place, with one female of each pair mimicking male mating behavior The two alternate roles two or three times during the breeding season
16.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.5 (a) A. uniparens females Male- like Ovulation Female Male- like Female Time (b) The sexual behavior of A. uniparens is correlated with the cycle of ovulation.Behavior Hormone level Ovary size Ovulation Progesterone Estradiol
17.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.5a (a) A. uniparens females
18.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.5b Male- like Ovulation Female Male- like Female Time (b) The sexual behavior of A. uniparens is correlated with the cycle of ovulation. Behavior Hormone level Ovary size Ovulation Progesterone Estradiol
19.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. For many animals, finding a partner for sexual reproduction may be challenging One solution is hermaphroditism, in which each individual has male and female reproductive systems Any two hermaphrodites can mate, and some hermaphrodites can self-fertilize Variation in Patterns of Sexual Reproduction
20.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Individuals of some species undergo sex reversals For example, in a coral reef fish, the bluehead wrasse, a lone male defends a group of females If the male dies, the largest female in the group transforms into a male Within a few weeks, this individual can begin to produce sperm instead of eggs
21.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. External and Internal Fertilization Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, the union of sperm and eggs In external fertilization, eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm in the external environment In internal fertilization, sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs within the tract
22.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. A moist habitat is almost always required for external fertilization to prevent gametes from drying out and to allow sperm to swim to eggs Many aquatic invertebrates simply shed gametes into the surrounding water In this case, timing of release of gametes is crucial to ensure that sperm and egg encounter one another If external fertilization is not synchronous across a population, courtship behaviors might lead to fertilization
23.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.6
24.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. However fertilization occurs, the mating animals may use pheromones, chemicals released by one organism that can influence physiology and behavior of another individual of the same species
25.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Ensuring the Survival of Offspring Internal fertilization is typically associated with production of fewer gametes but the survival of a higher fraction of zygotes Internal fertilization is also often associated with mechanisms to provide protection of embryos and parental care of young
26.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The embryos of some terrestrial animals develop in eggs with calcium- and protein-containing shells and several internal membranes Some other animals retain the embryo, which develops inside the female In many animals, parental care helps ensure survival of offspring
27.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.7
28.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Concept 36.2: Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes Sexual reproduction in animals relies on sets of cells that are precursors for eggs and sperm
29.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Variation in Reproductive Systems Many (but not all) animals have gonads, organs that produce gametes Some simple systems do not have gonads, but gametes form from undifferentiated tissue More elaborate systems include sets of accessory tubes and glands that carry, nourish, and protect gametes and sometimes developing embryos
30.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Most insects have separate sexes with complex reproductive systems In many insects, the female has a spermatheca in which sperm is stored during copulation
31.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. A cloaca is a common opening between the external environment and the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems A cloaca is common in nonmammalian vertebrates; mammals usually have a separate opening to the digestive tract
32.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Human Male Reproductive Anatomy The male’s external reproductive organs are the scrotum and penis The internal organs are gonads that produce sperm and reproductive hormones, accessory glands that secrete products essential to sperm movement, and ducts that carry sperm and glandular secretions Animation: Male Reproductive Anatomy
33.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.8 Seminal vesicle (Rectum) Ejaculatory duct Bulbourethral gland Erectile tissue Vas deferens Prostate gland Epididymis Scrotum Vas deferens Testis Prepuce Penis Glans Urethra (Pubic bone) (Urinary duct) (Urinary bladder)
34.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Testes The male gonads, or testes, produce sperm in highly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules Production of normal sperm cannot occur at the body temperatures of most mammals The scrotum, a fold of the body wall, maintains testis temperature at about 2o C below the core body temperature
35.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Ducts From the seminiferous tubules of a testis, sperm pass into the coiled duct of the epididymis During ejaculation, sperm are propelled through the muscular vas deferens and the ejaculatory duct and then exit the penis through the urethra
36.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Accessory Glands Semen is composed of sperm plus secretions from three sets of accessory glands The two seminal vesicles contribute about 60% of the total volume of semen The prostate gland secretes its products directly into the urethra through several small ducts The bulbourethral glands secrete a clear mucus before ejaculation that neutralizes acidic urine remaining in the urethra
37.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Penis The human penis is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue During sexual arousal, erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries, causing an erection The head of the penis, or glans, has a thinner skin covering than the shaft The prepuce, or foreskin, is a fold of skin covering the glans; it is removed when a male is circumcised
38.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Human Female Reproductive Anatomy The female external reproductive structures include the clitoris and two sets of labia The internal organs are a pair of gonads and a system of ducts and chambers that carry gametes and house the embryo and fetus Animation: Female Reproductive Anatomy
39.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.9 Oviduct (Rectum) Cervix Major vestibular gland Vagina Vaginal opening Ovary Uterus (Urinary bladder) (Pubic bone) (Urethra) Body ClitorisGlans Prepuce Labia minora Labia majora
40.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Ovaries The female gonads, a pair of ovaries, lie in the abdominal cavity Each ovary contains many follicles, which consist of a partially developed egg, called an oocyte, surrounded by support cells
41.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Oviducts and Uterus Upon ovulation, a mature egg cell is released It travels from the ovary to the uterus via an oviduct Cilia in the oviduct convey the egg to the uterus, also called the womb The uterus lining, the endometrium, has many blood vessels The neck of the uterus is the cervix, which opens into the vagina
42.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Vagina and Vulva The vagina is a muscular but elastic chamber that is the repository for sperm during copulation and serves as the birth canal The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva, which consists of the labia majora, labia minora, hymen, and clitoris
43.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Mammary Glands The mammary glands are not part of the reproductive system but are important to mammalian reproduction Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk
44.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Gametogenesis Gametogenesis is the production of gametes There is a close relationship between the structure and function of the gonads Video: Flagella in Sperm Video: Sperm Flagellum
45.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.10a Epididymis Seminiferous tubule Testis Cross section of seminiferous tubule Sertoli cell nucleus Plasma membrane Lumen of seminiferous tubule Mitochondria Nucleus Acrosome Midpiece Tail Head Neck Primordial germ cell in embryo Spermatogonial stem cell Mitotic divisions Spermatogonium Mitotic divisions Mitotic divisions Primary spermatocyte Secondary spermatocyte Spermatids (two stages) Early spermatid Differentiation (Sertoli cells provide nutrients) Meiosis I Meiosis II n n 2n 2n 2n n n n n n n n nSperm cell
46.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.10aa Epididymis Seminiferous tubule Testis Cross section of seminiferous tubule Sertoli cell nucleus Spermatogonium Primary spermatocyte Secondary spermatocyte Spermatids (two stages) Lumen of seminiferous tubule Sperm cell
47.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.10ab Primordial germ cell in embryo Spermatogonial stem cell Mitotic divisions Spermatogonium Mitotic divisions Mitotic divisions Primary spermatocyte Secondary spermatocyte Early spermatid Differentiation (Sertoli cells provide nutrients) Meiosis I Meiosis II n n 2n 2n 2n n n n n n n n nSperm cell
48.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.10ac Plasma membrane Mitochondria Nucleus Acrosome Midpiece Tail Head Neck
49.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.10b Primordial germ cell Completion of meiosis I and onset of meiosis II Mitotic divisions In embryo Mitotic divisions Mature follicle Primary oocyte (present at birth), arrested in prophase of meiosis I Ovulation, sperm entry First polar body Degenerating corpus luteum Ruptured follicle Ovulated secondary oocyte Fertilized egg Ovary Secondary oocyte, arrested at metaphase of meiosis II Oogonium2n n Second polar body Completion of meiosis II 2n n n n Primary oocyte within follicle Growing follicle Corpus luteum
50.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.10ba Mature follicle Degenerating corpus luteum Ruptured follicle Ovulated secondary oocyte Ovary Primary oocyte within follicle Growing follicle Corpus luteum
51.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.10bb Primordial germ cell Mitotic divisions In embryo Mitotic divisions Primary oocyte (present at birth), arrested in prophase of meiosis I Oogonium2n 2n
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.10bc Completion of meiosis I and onset of meiosis II Ovulation, sperm entry First polar body Fertilized egg Secondary oocyte, arrested at metaphase of meiosis II n Second polar body Completion of meiosis II n n n
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Education, Inc. Spermatogenesis, the development of sperm, is continuous and prolific (millions of sperm are produced per day); each sperm takes about 7 weeks to develop Oogenesis, the development of a mature egg, is a prolonged process Immature eggs form in the female embryo but do not complete their development until years or decades later
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Education, Inc. Spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis in three ways All four products of meiosis develop into sperm, while only one of the four becomes an egg Spermatogenesis occurs throughout adolescence and adulthood Sperm are produced continuously without the prolonged interruptions in oogenesis
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Education, Inc. Concept 36.3: The interplay of tropic and sex hormones regulates reproduction in mammals Human reproduction is coordinated by hormones from the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and gonads Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is secreted by the hypothalamus and directs the release of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) from the anterior pituitary
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Education, Inc. FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads and the production of sex hormones The major androgen is testosterone and major estrogens are estradiol and progesterone Both males and females produce androgens and estrogens but differ in their blood concentrations of particular hormones For example, males have testosterone levels about 10 times higher than females
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Education, Inc. Sex hormones regulate gamete production both directly and indirectly They serve many additional functions including sexual behavior and the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics Androgens are responsible for male vocalizations and courtship displays
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.11
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Education, Inc. FSH and LH act on different cells in the testes to direct spermatogenesis Sertoli cells, found in the seminiferous tubules, respond to FSH by nourishing developing sperm Leydig cells, connective tissue between the tubules, respond to LH by secreting testosterone and other androgens, which promote spermatogenesis Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System Animation: Male Hormones
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.12 Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary GnRH Sertoli cells Leydig cells Inhibin Testis Spermatogenesis Testosterone FSH LH Negativefeedback Negativefeedback
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Education, Inc. Two negative feedback mechanisms control sex hormone production in males Testosterone regulates the production of GnRH, FSH, and LH through negative feedback mechanisms Sertoli cells secrete the hormone inhibin, which reduces FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary
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Education, Inc. Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive Cycles Females produce eggs in cycles Prior to ovulation, the endometrium thickens with blood vessels in preparation for embryo implantation If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium, the endometrium is shed in a process called menstruation
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Education, Inc. Hormones closely link the two cycles of female reproduction Changes in the uterus define the menstrual cycle (also called the uterine cycle) Changes in the ovaries define the ovarian cycle Animation: Ovulation Animation: Post-Ovulation
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.13 Anterior pituitary Hypothalamus GnRH FSH LH Control by hypothalamus(a) FSH and LH stimulate follicle to grow Inhibited by low levels of estradiol FSH LH Pituitary gonadotropins in blood (b) Growing follicle Follicular phase Ovulation Estradiol secreted by growing follicle in increasing amounts Ovarian cycle(c) Stimulated by high levels of estradiol Inhibited by combination of estradiol and progesterone LH surge triggers ovulation Maturing follicle Corpus luteum Degenerating corpus luteum Luteal phase Progesterone and estradiol secreted by corpus luteum Ovarian hormones in blood (d) Uterine (menstrual) cycle(e) Estradiol Estradiol level very low Peak causes LH surge (see ) Progesterone Progesterone and estra- diol promote thickening of endometrium Endometrium Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase 0 Days 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 5 6 9 10 105 14 15 20 25 28
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.13a Anterior pituitary Hypothalamus GnRH FSH LH Control by hypothalamus(a) FSH and LH stimulate follicle to grow Inhibited by low levels of estradiol FSH LH Pituitary gonadotropins in blood (b) Stimulated by high levels of estradiol Inhibited by combination of estradiol and progesterone LH surge triggers ovulation 1 2 3 6 Days 0 105 14 15 20 25 28
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Education, Inc. 4 Figure 36.13b FSH and LH stimulate follicle to grow FSH LH Pituitary gonadotropins in blood (b) Growing follicle Follicular phase Ovulation Estradiol secreted by growing follicle in increasing amounts Ovarian cycle(c) LH surge triggers ovulation Maturing follicle Corpus luteum Degenerating corpus luteum Luteal phase Progesterone and estradiol secreted by corpus luteum 3 8 6 7 Days 0 105 14 15 20 25 28
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Education, Inc. 5 9 10 Figure 36.13c Growing follicle Follicular phase Ovulation Estradiol secreted by growing follicle in increasing amounts Ovarian cycle(c) Maturing follicle Corpus luteum Degenerating corpus luteum Luteal phase Progesterone and estradiol secreted by corpus luteum Ovarian hormones in blood (d) Estradiol Estradiol level very low Peak causes LH surge (see ) Progesterone Progesterone and estra- diol promote thickening of endometrium 4 87 6 Days 0 105 14 15 20 25 28
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.13d Uterine (menstrual) cycle(e) Endometrium Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase Days 5 9 10 Ovarian hormones in blood (d) Estradiol Estradiol level very low Peak causes LH surge (see ) Progesterone Progesterone and estra- diol promote thickening of endometrium 6 0 105 14 15 20 25 28
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Education, Inc. The Ovarian Cycle The sequential release of GnRH then FSH and LH stimulates follicle growth Follicle and oocyte growth and an increase in the hormone estradiol characterize the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle Estradiol causes GnRH, FSH, and LH levels to rise through positive feedback The final result is the maturation of the follicle
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Education, Inc. At the end of the follicular phase, the follicle releases the secondary oocyte The follicular tissue left behind transforms into the corpus luteum in response to LH; this is the luteal phase The corpus luteum disintegrates, and ovarian steroid hormones decrease by negative feedback mechanisms
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Education, Inc. The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle Hormones coordinate the uterine cycle with the ovarian cycle Thickening of the endometrium during the proliferative phase coordinates with the follicular phase Secretion of nutrients during the secretory phase coordinates with the luteal phase Shedding of the endometrium during the menstrual flow phase coordinates with the growth of new ovarian follicles
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Education, Inc. Menopause After about 500 cycles, human females undergo menopause, the cessation of ovulation and menstruation Menopause is very unusual among animals Menopause might have evolved to allow a mother to provide better care for her children and grandchildren
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Education, Inc. Menstrual Versus Estrous Cycles Menstrual cycles are characteristic only of humans and some other primates The endometrium is shed from the uterus in a bleeding called menstruation Sexual receptivity is not limited to a time frame
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Education, Inc. Estrous cycles are characteristic of most mammals The endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period The length and frequency of estrus cycles vary from species to species
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Education, Inc. Two reactions predominate in both sexes Vasocongestion, the filling of tissue with blood Myotonia, increased muscle tension The sexual response cycle has four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution Excitement prepares the penis and vagina for coitus (sexual intercourse) Human Sexual Response
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Education, Inc. Direct stimulation of genitalia maintains the plateau phase and prepares the vagina for receipt of sperm Orgasm is characterized by rhythmic contractions of reproductive structures In males, semen is first released into the urethra and then ejaculated from the urethra In females, the uterus and outer vagina contract
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Education, Inc. During the resolution phase, organs return to their normal state and muscles relax
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Concept 36.4: Fertilization, cleavage, and gastrulation initiate embryonic development Across animal species, embryonic development involves common stages occurring in a set order First is fertilization, which forms a zygote During the cleavage stage, a series of mitoses divide the zygote into a many-celled embryo The resulting blastula then undergoes rearrangements into a three-layered embryo called a gastrula
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.14 EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT FERTILIZATION GASTRULATION CLEAVAGE ORGANO- GENESIS Metamorphosis Zygote Blastula Gastrula Tail-bud embryo Larval stages Adult frog Sperm Egg
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Education, Inc. Fertilization Molecules and events at the egg surface play a crucial role in each step of fertilization Sperm penetrate the protective layer around the egg Receptors on the egg surface bind to molecules on the sperm surface Changes at the egg surface prevent polyspermy, the entry of multiple sperm nuclei into the egg
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Education, Inc. Video: Cortical Granule Video: Calcium Release of Egg Video: Calcium Wave of Egg
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Education, Inc. Figure 35.15-1 Basal body (centriole) Sperm head Sperm- binding receptors Acrosome Jelly coat Egg plasma membrane Vitelline layer
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Education, Inc. Figure 35.15-2 Basal body (centriole) Sperm head Sperm- binding receptors Acrosome Jelly coat Egg plasma membrane Hydrolytic enzymes Vitelline layer
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 35.15-3 Sperm nucleus Basal body (centriole) Sperm head Acrosomal process Actin filament Sperm- binding receptors Acrosome Jelly coat Egg plasma membrane Hydrolytic enzymes Vitelline layer
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 35.15-4 Sperm plasma membrane Sperm nucleus Basal body (centriole) Sperm head Acrosomal process Actin filament Sperm- binding receptors Acrosome Jelly coat Fused plasma membranes Egg plasma membrane Hydrolytic enzymes Vitelline layer
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Education, Inc. Figure 35.15-5 Sperm plasma membrane Sperm nucleus Basal body (centriole) Sperm head Acrosomal process Actin filament Sperm- binding receptors Acrosome Jelly coat Fertilization envelope Perivitelline space Cortical granuleFused plasma membranes Egg plasma membrane Hydrolytic enzymes Vitelline layer
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The events of fertilization also initiate metabolic reactions that trigger the onset of embryonic development, thus “activating” the egg Activation leads to events such as increased protein synthesis that precede the formation of a diploid nucleus Sperm entry triggers a release of Ca2+ , which activates the egg and triggers the cortical reaction, the slow block to polyspermy
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.16 First cell division Onset of DNA synthesis Fusion of egg and sperm nuclei complete Increased protein synthesis Formation of fertilization envelope complete Binding of sperm to egg Cortical reaction (slow block to polyspermy) Increased intracellular calcium level Acrosomal reaction: plasma membrane depolarization (fast block to polyspermy) MinutesSeconds 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 50 1 2 3 4 5 10 20 30 40 60 90
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Education, Inc. Cleavage and Gastrulation Fertilization is followed by cleavage, a period of rapid cell division without growth Cleavage partitions the cytoplasm of one large cell into many smaller cells The blastula is a ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel The blastula is produced after about five to seven cleavage divisions Video: Cleavage of Egg
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.17 (a) Fertilized egg (b) Four-cell stage (c) Early blastula (d) Later blastula 50 µm
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.17a (a) Fertilized egg 50 µm
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.17b 50 µm (b) Four-cell stage
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.17c 50 µm (c) Early blastula
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.17d 50 µm (d) Later blastula
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. After cleavage, the rate of cell division slows The remaining stages of embryonic development are responsible for morphogenesis, the cellular and tissue-based processes by which the animal body takes shape
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Education, Inc. During gastrulation, a set of cells at or near the surface of the blastula moves to an interior location, cell layers are established, and a primitive digestive tube forms The hollow blastula is reorganized into a two- or three-layered embryo called a gastrula
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Education, Inc. The cell layers produced by gastrulation are called germ layers The ectoderm forms the outer layer and the endoderm the inner layer In vertebrates and other animals with bilateral symmetry, a third germ layer, the mesoderm, forms between the endoderm and ectoderm
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.18 Mesenchyme cells Vegetal plate Blastocoel Blastocoel Blastocoel Blastopore Blastopore Mesenchyme cells Vegetal pole Animal pole Filopodia Archenteron ArchenteronEctoderm Mouth 50 µm Digestive tube (endoderm) Anus (from blastopore) Future ectoderm Future endoderm Future mesoderm Key Mesenchyme (mesoderm forms future skeleton)
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.18a-1 Mesenchyme cells Vegetal plate Blastocoel Vegetal pole Animal pole Future ectoderm Future endoderm Future mesoderm
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.18a-2 Mesenchyme cells Vegetal plate Blastocoel Vegetal pole Animal pole Filopodia Archenteron Future ectoderm Future endoderm Future mesoderm
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.18a-3 Mesenchyme cells Vegetal plate Blastocoel Blastocoel Blastopore Vegetal pole Animal pole Filopodia Archenteron Archenteron Future ectoderm Future endoderm Future mesoderm
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.18a-4 Mesenchyme cells Vegetal plate Blastocoel Blastocoel Blastopore Vegetal pole Animal pole Filopodia Archenteron ArchenteronEctoderm Mouth Digestive tube (endoderm) Anus (from blastopore) Future ectoderm Future endoderm Future mesoderm Mesenchyme (mesoderm forms future skeleton)
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.18b Blastocoel Blastopore Mesenchyme cells Filopodia Archenteron 50 µm
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Education, Inc. Cell movements and interactions that form the germ layers vary among species One distinction is whether the mouth develops at the first opening that forms in the embryo (protostomes) or the second (deuterostomes) Sea urchins and other echinoderms are deuterostomes, as are chordates
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Education, Inc. Each germ layer contributes to a distinct set of structures in the adult animal Some organs and many organ systems derive from more than one germ layer
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.19 ECTODERM (outer layer of embryo) ENDODERM (inner layer of embryo) MESODERM (middle layer of embryo) • Epithelial lining of digestive tract and associated organs (liver, pancreas) • Epithelial lining of respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts and ducts • Thymus, thyroid, and parathyroid glands • Skeletal and muscular systems • Circulatory and lymphatic systems • Excretory and reproductive systems (except germ cells) • Dermis of skin • Adrenal cortex • Epidermis of skin and its derivatives (including sweat glands, hair follicles) • Nervous and sensory systems • Pituitary gland, adrenal medulla • Jaws and teeth • Germ cells
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Education, Inc. Human Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth Conception, fertilization of an egg by a sperm, occurs in the oviduct The resulting zygote begins cleavage about 24 hours after fertilization and produces a blastocyst after 4 more days A few days later, the embryo implants into the endometrium of the uterus
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Education, Inc. The condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus is called gestation, or pregnancy Human pregnancy averages 38 weeks from fertilization Gestation varies among mammals, from 21 days in many rodents to more than 600 days in elephants Human gestation is divided into three trimesters of about three months each
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.20 Cleavage Fertilization Ovulation Ovary Uterus Endometrium Implantation Cleavage continues. TrophoblastBlastocyst Endometrium Inner cell mass (a) From ovulation to implantation (b) Implantation of blastocyst 1 2 3 4 5 Cavity
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Education, Inc. During the first trimester, the embryo secretes hormones that signal its presence and regulate the mother’s reproductive system Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) acts to maintain secretion of progesterone and estrogens by the corpus luteum through the first few months of pregnancy
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Education, Inc. Occasionally an embryo splits during the first month of development, resulting in identical or monozygotic twins Fraternal, or dizygotic, twins arise when two eggs are fertilized and implant as two genetically distinct embryos Some embryos cannot complete development due to chromosomal or other abnormalities These spontaneously abort, often before a woman is aware of her pregnancy
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Education, Inc. During its first 2 to 4 weeks, the embryo obtains nutrients directly from the endometrium Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst, called the trophoblast, mingles with the endometrium and eventually forms the placenta Materials diffuse between maternal and embryonic circulation to supply the embryo with nutrients, immune protection, and metabolic waste disposal
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Education, Inc. The first trimester is the main period of organogenesis, development of the body organs All the major structures are present by 8 weeks, and the embryo is called a fetus Video: Ultrasound of Fetus
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.21 (a) 5 weeks (c) 20 weeks(b) 14 weeks
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.21a (a) 5 weeks
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 36.21b (b) 14 weeks
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.21c (c) 20 weeks
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Education, Inc. During the second trimester the fetus grows and is very active The mother may feel fetal movements as early as one month into the second trimester
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Education, Inc. During the third trimester, the fetus grows and fills the space within the embryonic membranes
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Education, Inc. Childbirth begins with labor, a series of strong, rhythmic contractions that push the fetus and placenta out of the body Once labor begins, local regulators, prostaglandins and hormones, induce and regulate further contractions of the uterus
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Education, Inc. Lactation, the production of milk, is an aspect of maternal care unique to mammals Suckling stimulates the release of prolactin, which in turn stimulates mammary glands to produce milk, and the secretion of oxytocin, which triggers milk release from the glands
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Education, Inc. Contraception Contraception, the deliberate prevention of pregnancy, can be achieved in a number of ways Contraceptive methods fall into three categories Preventing development or release of eggs and sperm Keeping sperm and egg apart Preventing implantation of an embryo
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Education, Inc. A health-care provider should be consulted for complete information on the choice and risks of contraception methods
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.22 Male Female Method Event MethodEvent Vasectomy Abstinence Condom Coitus interruptus (very high failure rate) Tubal ligation Abstinence Female condom Combination birth control pill (or injection, patch, or vaginal ring) Spermicides; diaphragm; progestin alone (as minipill or injection) Morning-after pill; intrauterine device (IUD) Production of sperm Production of primary oocytes Sperm transport down male duct system Oocyte development and ovulation Sperm deposited in vagina Capture of the oocyte by the oviduct Sperm movement through female reproductive tract Transport of oocyte in oviduct Meeting of sperm and oocyte in oviduct Implantation of blastocyst in endometrium Union of sperm and egg
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.22a Male Female Method Event MethodEvent Vasectomy Abstinence Condom Coitus interruptus (very high failure rate) Tubal ligation Abstinence Female condom Combination birth control pill (or injection, patch, or vaginal ring) Spermicides; diaphragm; progestin alone (as minipill or injection) Production of sperm Production of primary oocytes Sperm transport down male duct system Oocyte development and ovulation Sperm deposited in vagina Capture of the oocyte by the oviduct
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.22b Morning-after pill; intrauterine device (IUD) Sperm movement through female reproductive tract Transport of oocyte in oviduct Meeting of sperm and oocyte in oviduct Implantation of blastocyst in endometrium Union of sperm and egg Male Female Method Event MethodEvent
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Education, Inc. The rhythm method, or natural family planning, is temporary abstinence when conception is most likely; it has a pregnancy rate of 10–20% Coitus interruptus, the withdrawal of the penis before ejaculation, is unreliable Barrier methods block fertilization with a pregnancy rate of less than 10% A condom fits over the penis A diaphragm is inserted into the vagina before intercourse
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Education, Inc. Intrauterine devices (IUDs) are inserted into the uterus and interfere with fertilization and implantation; the pregnancy rate is less than 1% Female birth control pills are hormonal contraceptives with a pregnancy rate of less than 1%
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Education, Inc. Infertility and In Vitro Fertilization Infertility, the inability to conceive offspring, affects about one in ten couples in the United States and worldwide The causes are varied and equally likely to affect men and women Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are the most significant preventable causes of infertility
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Some forms of infertility are treatable Hormone therapy can sometimes increase sperm or egg production In vitro fertilization (IVF) mixes oocytes with sperm in culture dishes and returns the embryo to the uterus at the eight-cell stage Sperm may be injected directly into an oocyte as well
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.UN01
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Education, Inc. Figure 36.UN02 Fertilized egg Polar body Secondary oocyte Secondary spermatocytes Primary oocyte Primary spermatocyte Polar body Sperm Spermatids Spermatogenesis Oogenesis Human gametogenesis 2n 2n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n
Notes de l'éditeur
Figure 36.1 How can each of these sea slugs be both male and female?
Figure 36.2 Asexual reproduction of a sea anemone (Anthopleura elegantissima)
Figure 36.3-1 The “reproductive handicap” of sex (step 1)
Figure 36.3-2 The “reproductive handicap” of sex (step 2)
Figure 36.3-3 The “reproductive handicap” of sex (step 3)
Figure 36.4 Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) mother and calf
Figure 36.5 Sexual behavior in parthenogenetic lizards
Figure 36.5a Sexual behavior in parthenogenetic lizards (part 1: photo)
Figure 36.5b Sexual behavior in parthenogenetic lizards (part 2: graph)
Figure 36.6 External fertilization
Figure 36.7 Parental care in an invertebrate
Figure 36.8 Reproductive anatomy of the human male
Figure 36.9 Reproductive anatomy of the human female
Figure 36.10a Exploring human gametogenesis (part 1: spermatogenesis)
Figure 36.10aa Exploring human gametogenesis (part 1a: spermatogenesis, location)
Figure 36.10ab Exploring human gametogenesis (part 1b: spermatogenesis, cell divisions)
Figure 36.10ac Exploring human gametogenesis (part 1c: anatomy of sperm)
Figure 36.10b Exploring human gametogenesis (part 2: oogenesis)
Figure 36.10ba Exploring human gametogenesis (part 2a: oogenesis, ovulation)
Figure 36.10bb Exploring human gametogenesis (part 2b: oogenesis, meiosis I)
Figure 36.10bc Exploring human gametogenesis (part 2c: oogenesis, meiosis II)
Figure 36.11 Androgen-dependent male anatomy and behavior in a lizard
Figure 36.12 Hormonal control of the testes
Figure 36.13 The reproductive cycles of the human female
Figure 36.13a The reproductive cycles of the human female (part 1: FSH and LH levels)
Figure 36.13b The reproductive cycles of the human female (part 2: ovarian cycle)
Figure 36.13c The reproductive cycles of the human female (part 3: ovarian hormone levels)
Figure 36.13d The reproductive cycles of the human female (part 4: menstrual cycle)
Figure 36.14 Developmental events in the life cycle of a frog
Figure 36.15-1 The acrosomal and cortical reactions during sea urchin fertilization (step 1)
Figure 36.15-2 The acrosomal and cortical reactions during sea urchin fertilization (step 2)
Figure 36.15-3 The acrosomal and cortical reactions during sea urchin fertilization (step 3)
Figure 36.15-4 The acrosomal and cortical reactions during sea urchin fertilization (step 4)
Figure 36.15-5 The acrosomal and cortical reactions during sea urchin fertilization (step 5)
Figure 36.16 Timeline for the fertilization of sea urchin eggs
Figure 36.17 Cleavage in an echinoderm embryo
Figure 36.17a Cleavage in an echinoderm embryo (part 1: fertilized egg)
Figure 36.17b Cleavage in an echinoderm embryo (part 2: four-cell stage)
Figure 36.17c Cleavage in an echinoderm embryo (part 3: early blastula)
Figure 36.17d Cleavage in an echinoderm embryo (part 4: later blastula)
Figure 36.18 Gastrulation in a sea urchin embryo
Figure 36.18a-1 Gastrulation in a sea urchin embryo (part 1, step 1)
Figure 36.18a-2 Gastrulation in a sea urchin embryo (part 1, step 2)
Figure 36.18a-3 Gastrulation in a sea urchin embryo (part 1, step 3)
Figure 36.18a-4 Gastrulation in a sea urchin embryo (part 1, step 4)
Figure 36.18b Gastrulation in a sea urchin embryo (part 2: LM)
Figure 36.19 Major derivatives of the three embryonic germ layers in vertebrates
Figure 36.20 Formation of a human zygote and early postfertilization events
Figure 36.21 Human fetal development
Figure 36.21a Human fetal development (part 1: 5 weeks)
Figure 36.21b Human fetal development (part 2: 14 weeks)
Figure 36.21c Human fetal development (part 3: 20 weeks)
Figure 36.22 Mechanisms of several contraceptive methods
Figure 36.22a Mechanisms of several contraceptive methods (part 1)
Figure 36.22b Mechanisms of several contraceptive methods (part 2)
Figure 36.UN01 Skills exercise: making inferences and designing an experiment
Figure 36.UN02 Summary of key concepts: human gametogenesis
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