Totten Freshwater Challenges And Opportunities 09 26 08

Freshwater Public Policies &
Market-based Actions

Michael P. Totten
Chief Advisor, Climate, Freshwater
Center for Environmental Leadership in Business
Conservation International

CI Freshwater Strategy Meeting
September 26, 2008

21st Century Mega Freshwater Threats

>85% Freshwater Consumption – Blue and Green Water - AGRICULTURE

Aggravated by global trading expansion in virtual water
imports and exports

>40% Freshwater Use – Thermal & Hydroelectric POWER PLANTS

Many of the same or similar utility and energy policies, rules,
regulations, incentives addressing climate change threat are
also applicable to freshwater threats from power plants

CLIMATE IMPACTS – on Blue and Green Water systems

Failure to stabilize atmospheric emissions under 450ppm could
lead to 1/3rd decline in global agriculture latter half this century
– leading to more land conversion and water consumption

Contribution of different consumption categories to the global water
footprint, with a distinction between the internal and external footprint

Agriculture’s share of total water use (6390 Gm3/yr) is even bigger than suggested by earlier
statistics due to the inclusion of greenwater use (use of soil water). If global irrigation losses
are included (~1590 Gm3/yr) the total water used in agriculture becomes 7980 Gm3/yr.
1/3rd is blue water withdrawn for irrigation; the remaining 2/3rd is green water (soil water).
A. Y. Hoekstra · A. K. Chapagain, Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their consumption pattern, Water Resources Management, (2007) 21:35–48

Nation’s Water Footprint
Internal + External (IWFP+EWFP)

IWFP = AWU + IWW + DWW − VWEdom

AWU is agricultural water use, taken equal to the evaporative water demand of the
crops;
IWW and DWW are the water withdrawals in the industrial and domestic sectors;
VWEdom is the virtual water export to other countries of domestically produced
products.

EWFP = VWI − VWEre-export

VWI is virtual water import into the country,
VWEre-export is virtual water exported to other countries as a result of re-export of
imported products.

Both the IWFP and EWFP include the use of blue water (ground and surface
water) and the use of green water (moisture stored in soil strata).


4 major direct factors determining
the water footprint of a country

1. Consumption Volume (related to the gross
national income);
2. Consumption Composition (e.g. high versus low
meat consumption);
3. Climate (growth conditions); and
4. Agricultural Practice (water use efficiency).

Underlying factors can include lack of proper water pricing, the presence of
subsidies, the use of water inefficient technology, lack of awareness of simple
water saving measures among farmers, lack of access to credit.


Water footprints of the USA, China and India Period: 1997–2001
Equal to one-third of total global water footprint

INDIA 987 Gm3/yr

CHINA 883 Gm3/yr

USA 696 Gm3/yr

A. Y. Hoekstra · A. K. Chapagain, Water
footprints of nations: Water use by people as a
function of their consumption pattern, Water
Resources Management, (2007) 21:35–48

water footprints of the USA, World avg, China and India Period: 1997–2001

USA 2483 m3/cap/yr

WORLD 1243 m3/cap/yr

INDIA 980 m3/cap/yr

CHINA 702 m3/cap/yr

A. Y. Hoekstra · A. K. Chapagain, Water
footprints of nations: Water use by people as a
function of their consumption pattern, Water
Resources Management, (2007) 21:35–48

Global average virtual water content of some selected products

liters


Global Water Consumption
• Humanity consumes half of
5,235
global freshwater flow

• No major river in the world
is without existing or
Increasing freshwater use planned hydroelectric dams
3,973
Total annual water • 2/3 of the freshwater
withdrawal historical
& projected, in cubic flowing to the oceans is
kilometers controlled by dams
1,382

579
Yet….
1900 1950 2000 2025 Clark, Robin & Jannet King, The Water Atlas, New Press, 2004.

Immense Water Shortages

projected population
10 billion
• 1 billion people without safe 4-5 billion

water total population
6 billion
May live in
countries
that are
0.5 billion
• 4 billion yet to be born will need lived in
chronically
short of
countries water
additional freshwater in decades chronically
short of
to come water

Postel, S. L., G. C. Daily, and P. R. Ehrlich, 1996, Human appropriation of renewable fresh water, Science 271:785-
788, www.sciencemag.org/; Gleick PH, et al. 2003, The world's water 2002–2003, www.pacinst.org/; Jackson, Robert
B., et al., Water in a Changing World, Issues in Ecology, Technical Report, Ecological Applications, 11(4), 2001, pp.
2000 2050
1027–1045, Ecological Society of America, www.esapubs.org/

In 2000, an estimated 195,000 Mgal/d, or 219 million acre-feet per year, were withdrawn for
thermoelectric power.
• The least efficient water-cooled plants use as much as 50 gallons of water per (kWh.
• Water quality is affected by water use at power plants because of the effects of the temperature
of discharged cooling water and the conditioning agents used to treat cooling water

Climate Impact on Agricultural Productivity

William Cline, Global Warming and Agriculture, Impacts by Country 2007.

Alcamo, J., M. Flörke and M. Marker, 2007: Future long-term changes in global water resources driven by socio-economic and climatic change. Hydrol. Sci. J., 52, 247–275.cited in
Bates, B.C., Z.W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu and J.P. Palutikof, Eds., 2008: Climate Change and Water. Technical, Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Secretariat,
Geneva, 210 pp.

Payment for Water Services
best occur given number of conditions

• Transaction costs are low
• Rights and responsibilities of all
parties are clearly defined
• Baseline assessments-monitoring
link payments to performance
• Resource rights and tenure clear
• Policies support PES programs
• Fee Mechanisms exist for
assessing, collecting & disbursing
• Poverty reduction addressed
Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES), Background and Theory, Draft, May 2005, Conservation International

Common Constraints in Ecosystem
Service Payment Projects
HIGH TRANSACTION COSTS
1. Multi-stakeholder transactions
2. Lack of cost effective intermediaries
3. Poorly defined property rights
4. Lack of a clear and comprehensive
regulatory framework

FACTORS THAT UNDERMINE DEMAND
5. Lack of scientific information establishing
benefits provided by forests
6. Lack of participation of key stakeholders
7. Lack of willingness to pay

FACTORS THAT UNDERMINE SUPPLY
8. Low awareness of market opportunities
and capacity to exploit these
9. Lack of credibility in service delivery
10. Cultural resistance
Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES), Background and Theory, Draft, May 2005, CI

Review of Ramsar COP9 National Reports in 2005 found only 18% of
Contracting Parties reported that the Convention’s own guidelines on river-
basin planning had been implemented, while fewer than a quarter reported
“projects that promote and demonstrate good practice in water allocation
and management for maintaining the ecological functions of wetlands have
been developed”.

“There is an inadequate appreciation of the gap between rhetoric and
implementation, and the profound overhaul of laws, policies and practices
which acceptance of the principles of IWRM necessitates”
Global Water Partnership (GWP), 2003

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)
“...there is no panacea for implementing IWRM; it must be tailored to prevailing
conditions and flexible enough to permit this. Local circumstances can put
obstacles in its way...

Probably because of these and other difficulties, very few countries have met the
Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) target that IWRM should be
incorporated into national water resources plans by the end of 2005.

Thus, it is clear that more analysis of the practical means of moving from a
fragmented, sector-by-sector approach to IWRM needs to be carried out for lower-
income countries, and these experiences need to be shared widely.”

World Water Development Report 2, released at the
4th World Water Forum, 2006, UN’s World Water
Assessment Programme,
http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap

Integrated river basin management (IRBM)

“IRBM is the process of coordinating conservation,
management and development of water, land and
related resources across sectors within a given river
basin, in order to maximise the economic and social
benefits derived from water resources in an equitable
manner while preserving and, where necessary,
restoring freshwater ecosystems.”
WWF, Managing Rivers Wisely, 2003

WWF’s 7 general principles for successful IRBM initiatives

There is a long-term vision for the river basin, which is supported by the major stakeholders;

Integration of policies, decisions and costs occurs across major sectoral interests such as industry,
agriculture, urban development, poverty alleviation, navigation, fisheries management and
conservation;

Strategic decision-making occurs at the river-basin scale and is used, in turn, to guide actions at
sub-basin or local levels;

Great care is taken with the selection and timing of IRBM initiatives and actions; there is a need for
readiness to seize unforeseen opportunities as they arise, providing that this will contribute clearly
to realising the strategic vision;

Priority is given to maximising active stakeholder participation in decision-making processes that
operate transparently and are based on provision of adequate and timely information;

There is sufficient investment by governments, the private sector, and civil society organisations in
building capacity to enable effective river-basin planning, including the establishment and
operation of participatory processes;

There is a solid foundation of knowledge about the river basin and the natural and socio-economic
forces that influence it

Water Use Productivity Indicator
1998 $ per cubic meter

Economic productivity of
water use in the United
States,1900 to 1996

Measured as $GNP (corrected for inflation) per m3 of water withdrawn, has risen
sharply in recent years, from around $6 to $8/m3 to around $14/m3. Although GNP
is an imperfect measure of economic well-being, it provides a consistent way to
begin to evaluate the economic productivity of water use.
Peter H.Gleick, Global Freshwater Resources: Soft-Path Solutions for the 21st Century, Science, Nov. 28 2003 V. 302, pp. 1524-28.

New York City Watershed
Source Protection
New York City’s nine million people receive 1.2 gallons
per capita of water daily from three watersheds. The city
has historically had high-quality drinking water,
but nonpoint source pollution has threatened to degrade
the water system.

Rather than pay $4–6 billion to construct filtration plants
and $300–500 million more for annual operating costs,
city commissioners developed a far more cost-effective
and comprehensive watershed protection program—
“whole farm planning.”

The city agreed to invest $1–1.5 billion within ten years,
principally financed by additional taxes on water bills,
bonds, and trust funds.
Winrock Intl., Financial Incentives to Communities for Stewardship Gleick, Peter H. Global Freshwater Resources: Soft-
of Environmental Resources Feasibility Study, Nov. 30, 2004, Path Solutions for the 21st Century. 28 November
www.winrock.org/GENERAL/Publications/FinancialFINALrev.pdf 2003, Vol 302, Science. www.sciencemag.org.

Water-based Finance Mechanism of NYC
The program requires the city to pay the operating costs of the program and the capital costs
for pollution-control investments on each farm as an incentive to farmers to join.

The program has
successfully reduced
watershed pollution loads,
enabling the city to save
millions of dollars, and
demonstrating that
watershed management can
be more cost effective than
water treatment for
maintaining a drinking water
supply.

NYC will also implement extensive watershed management measures, including water quality
monitoring and disease surveillance, land acquisition and comprehensive planning, and
upgrading wastewater treatment plants. The Watershed Agricultural Council (WAC), a local
organization, was formed to support the improvement of land-use practices as well as
economic development of local communities.

Inefficient vs Efficient Water Path
Projections
<1980 (forecasts for 2000 No efficiency
Cubic kilometers per year

included
or 2015)
between 1980 and 1995
(forecasts for 2000)
Little efficiency
>1995 (forecasts for included
2000,2010,
2025,2030,2050,2075)

Optimum efficiency
included

Projections of water use and actual global water withdrawals. Projections made before 1980
forecast very substantial increases in water use; more recent forecasts have begun to include
possible improvements in water productivity to reflect recent historical experience.
Peter H.Gleick, Global Freshwater Resources: Soft-Path Solutions for the 21st Century, Science, Nov. 28 2003 V. 302, pp. 1524-28.

Soft Water Path Savings

Total indoor residential water use in S. California in 2020 could be below the
level of actual water use in 1980, despite a 50% increase in population.
Peter Gleick, Water Use, Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 2003. 28:275–314

Supply Curve of Energy + Water
Efficiency (& Information factors)

Sathaye, Jayant, and Scott Murtishaw. 2004. Market Failures, Consumer Preferences, and Transaction Costs in Energy Efficiency Purchase Decisions.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for the California Energy Commission, PIER Energy-Related Environmental Research. CEC-500-2005-020,
www.energy.ca.gov/2005publications/CEC-500-2005-020/CEC-500-2005-020.PDF

21st century Hydro Damming
Threatens to Exceed Last
Century’s Damming -- Mostly in
Biodiversity Habitat

Hydrodams 7% GHG emissions
Basin measurements suggest hydrodams account for ~7 % of global GHG
emissions and could increase to 15% given projected dam growth, yet
emissions are not fully accounted in the Kyoto Treaty GHG inventories.

Measurements at Brazil’s Tucuruí
dam indicate GHG releases of
1.4 to 2 million tons of CO2 per
TeraWatt-hour (MtC02/TWh)

Higher than bituminous coal plant
releases of 0.8 to 1.2 MtC02/TWh

Higher than natural gas-fired
combined cycle plant releases of
0.3 to 0.5 MtC02/TWh
St. Louis VL, Kelly CA, Duchemin E, et al. 2000. Reservoir surfaces as sources of Tucuruí dam, Brazil
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere: a global estimate. BioScience 50: 766–75,

Net Emissions from Brazilian Reservoirs
compared with Combined Cycle Natural Gas
Emissions: Emissions:
Reservoir Generating Km2/ Emissions
DAM Hydro CC Gas
Area Capacity Ratio
MW (MtCO2- (MtCO2-
(km2) (MW) Hydro/Gas
eq/yr) eq/yr)

Tucuruí 24330 4240 5.7 8.60 2.22 3.87

Curuá- 72 40 1.8 0.15 0.02 7.50
Una

Balbina 3150 250 12.6 6.91 0.12 57.58

Source: Patrick McCully, Tropical Hydropower is a Significant Source of Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Interim response to the International
Hydropower Association, International Rivers Network, June 2004

Amazon damming
75 planned dams and reservoirs in Brazil’s Amazonian region

Cana Brava I on Tocantins

Source: Fearnside PM.
1995. Hydroelectric dams
in the Brazilian Amazon as
sources of “greenhouse”
gases. Environmental
Conservation 22: 7–19.

Food, Fuel, Species
Tradeoffs?
By 2100, an additional 1700 million ha
of land may be required for
agriculture.
Combined with the 800 million ha of
additional land needed for medium
growth bioenergy scenarios, threatens
intact ecosystems and biodiversity-
rich habitats.

Area to Power 100% of U.S. Onroad Vehicles?
Solar-w/storage
Wind turbines
ground footprint
Wind-w/storage
turbine spacing

Cellulosic ethanol

Corn ethanol

Solar-storage and Wind-storage refer to battery storage of these intermittent renewable
resources in plug-in electric driven vehicles, CAES or other storage technologies
Mark Z. Jacobson, Wind Versus Biofuels for Addressing Climate, Health, and Energy, Atmosphere/Energy Program, Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, March 5,
2007, http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/E85vWindSol

Afforestation, Climate and Water
Forests, generally, are expected to use more water (the sum of
transpiration and evaporation of water intercepted by tree canopies) than
crops, grass, or natural short vegetation. This effect, occurring in lands
that are subjected to afforestation or reforestation, may be related to
increased interception loss, especially where the canopy is wet for a large
proportion of the year or, in drier regions, to the development of more
massive root systems, which allow water extraction and use during
prolonged dry seasons.

Interception losses are greatest from forests that have large leaf areas
throughout the year. Thus, such losses tend to be greater for
evergreen forests than for deciduous forests and may be expected
to be larger for fast-growing forests with high rates of carbon
storage than for slow-growing forests. Consequently, afforestation
with fast-growing conifers on non-forest land commonly decreases
the flow of water from catchments and can cause water shortages
during droughts

Geneva, 210 pp.

Efficiency services
Immense pool
Highly cost-effective
Extraordinarily low risk
A myriad of benefits

No. 1, 2,3 Actions: Efficiency, Efficiency, and more Efficiency
Decoupling, Financial Alignment, Standards, Dynamic Pricing

The Art of Efficiency

Efficiency gains 1973-2005 Eliminated
75 ExaJoules of Energy Supply
$700 billion per year in energy bill savings

Envision 18 million coal railcars
that would wrap around the world
seven times each year.
Or, imagine 8,800 Exxon Valdez oil
supertanker shipments per year.

Only 2 nations consume > 75 EJ per year: USA and China.

McKinsey’s recent
assessment concluded
energy efficiency
improvements with a
10% or higher ROI could
provide half of all new
energy demand through
2030.

And IEA’s “Aggressive
Innovation” scenario
concluded efficiency
gains could provide 75%
of projected new energy
service demand through
2030.

Wedges Scenario for 21st Century CO2 Reductions
oil gas coal forests
oil gas coal
geothermal agriculture Assumes:
1% 2% 1% 5%
biomass1% 5%
10% 1) Global
economic
bldgs EE
growth 2-3%
15%
per year all
wind century long;
15%
2) sustaining
3% per year
efficiency
gains;
transport EE
15%
3) Combined
solar carbon cap &
15% carbon tax
industry EE
15%

KEY INSIGHT

Energy, water and resource efficiency gains can satisfy
half of the necessary GHG reductions this century
-- even as the global economy grows 10 to 20-fold --
– providing services equal to 14 billion coal rail cars
(1800 TW-yrs or 57,000 EJs).

CURRENT GLOBAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION ~ 475 ExaJoules (15 TW-yrs)

BUSINESS-AS-USUAL TRAJECTORY 200 times this amount over 100 years –
113,000 EJ (3600 TW-yrs). Fossil fuels will account for 75% of this sum.

SMART ENERGY SERVICES (EFFICIENCY) can deliver 57,000 EJs (1800
TW-yrs). Save $50 trillion. Avoid several trillion tons CO2 emissions.

Envision eliminating the need for 13.8 billion coal railcars this century.

OR, Envision eliminating the need for 6,700 Chernobyl reactors.

OR, Envision eliminating the need for 13,800 Glen Canyon dams.

OR, Envision eliminating the need for 17 million LNG tanker shipments.

MORE ENERGY EFFICIENCY
REQUIRES LESS HYDRODAMS

Upper Mekong dam, China Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) manufacturing

80% of all new electricity-consuming appliances, motors, office equipment will be
purchased in developing countries in coming decades. Promoting production & purchase
of hi-efficiency devices is 10 times less costly than any new power plant –hydro or
coal.For example, the CFL factory above costs $5 million and over its lifespan will produce
enough CFLs to displace inefficient incandescent bulbs that result in eliminating need for
$6 billion investment constructing 3,600 MW of power plants.
Advanced Lighting and Window Technologies for Reducing Electricity Consumption and Peak Demand: Overseas Manufacturing and Marketing Opportunities,
byAshok Gadgil et al., Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, 1992, posted at http://www.crest.org/efficiency/gadgil/index.html

Contribution of hydropower to net
electricity generation in Africa (2002)

Water Use in Energy Production

Water Consumption (liters per MWh)

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Wind turbine Solar-electric combined cycle coal-fired nuclear

$50 billion/yr Global Savings Potential, 44 Gigaton CO2 Reduction

Hashem Akbari Arthur Rosenfeld and Surabi Menon, Global Cooling: Increasing World-wide Urban Albedos to Offset CO2, 5th Annual California Climate Change
Conference, Sacramento, CA, September 9, 2008, http://www.climatechange.ca.gov/events/2008_conference/presentations/index.html

Hashem Akbari Arthur Rosenfeld and Surabi Menon, Global Cooling: Increasing World-wide Urban Albedos to Offset CO2, 5th Annual California Climate Change
Conference, Sacramento, CA, September 9, 2008, http://www.climatechange.ca.gov/events/2008_conference/presentations/index.html

Biggest Efficiency Option of Them All:
Supplier Chain Factories & Products

Demand Facts Efficiency Outcomes
Industrial electric motor systems 2 trillion kWh per year savings –
consume 40% of electricity equal to 1/4th all coal plants to be
worldwide, 50% in USA, 60% in built through 2030 worldwide.
China – over 7 trillion kWh per
year. $240 billion savings per decade.

Retrofit savings of 30%, New $200 to $400 billion benefits per
savings of 50% -- @ 1 ¢/kWh. decade in avoided emissions of
GHGs, SO2 and NOx.

Support SEEEM (Standards SEEEM (www.seeem.org/) is a comprehensive
for Energy Efficiency of market transformation strategy to promote efficient
Electric Motor Systems) industrial electric motor systems worldwide

Green Buildings – ecologically
sustainable, economically superior,
higher occupant satisfaction

The Costs and
Financial Benefits
of Green Buildings,
Public library – North Carolina A Report to
California’s
Sustainable
Building Task
Force, Oct. 2003, by
Greg Kats et al.

$50 to $70 per
ft2 net present
value
Oberlin College
Heinz Foundation Ecology Center,
Green Building, PA Ohio

Less Large Power Plants & Mines
More Retail “Efficiency Power Plants - EPPs”
Less Coal Power Plants

Less Coal Rail Cars

Less Coal Mines

KEY POLICY – UTILITY DECOUPLING

Align utility and customer financial interests
to capture the vast pool of end-use efficiency,
onsite and distributed energy and water
service opportunities.

Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) Key to
harnessing “Efficiency Power Plants” (EPPs)
For delivering least-cost & risk electricity, natural gas & water services

USA minus CA & NY
Per Capital
Electricity 165 GW
Consumption Coal
Power
New York Plants
California
[EPPs]
Californian’s have
net savings of
$1,000 per family

California proof of IRP value in promoting lower cost
efficiency over new power plants or hydro dams, and
lower GHG emissions.

Efficiency improvements “deliver” electricity services at
4 to 5 times lower cost than new power plants.

Consumers and Businesses ignore upwards of 90% of
energy & water efficiency opportunities because they
demand a payback within months or less than 1 year.

This results in massive lost opportunities for capturing
low-cost carbon mitigation & freshwater savings options.

Utilities, in sharp contrast, have multi-decade time
horizons, and find ROIs of 10% profitable.

However, the century-old utility regulatory structure that
links revenues and profits undermines any incentive to
capture the other 90% of efficiency gains.

Fortunately, there are innovative regulatory mechanisms
for aligning Utility and consumer financial interests to
capture this vast pool of end-use efficiency gains in
buildings, appliances, factories, motors, lights, agriculture.

Utility Big Game Changes
What would it mean worldwide if utilities promoted energy and water efficiency
and greening facilities whenever it was more cost-effective than building new
power plants?

Several thousand giant power plants are projected to be constructed
by 2030. Over the operating lifetimes of these power plants, some $48
trillion of revenues will be spent for the electricity services.

However, given the immensity of new factory expansion, building
construction, and manufacturing of billions of new appliances, lights, office
equipment, motors and other devices used in buildings, that will occur
worldwide in the coming decades – it is technically feasible and financially
preferable to eliminate half of these power plants through taking advantage of
radical efficiency gains.

Bottom line: through innovative utility regulatory reform, utilities could profit
as much from efficiency as from building power plants, but while freeing up
half the revenues – part provided as incentives to architects, builders,
manufacturers, customers, and a large fraction freed up from the utility sector
to spur more economic development.

SEIZING THE 4 E’S
EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY, WATER, RESOURCES AND LAND USE

President Hu Jintao repeatedly calls for China to
build a great “resource-conserving, water-
conscious, and innovating society.”

Premier Wen Jiabao continually emphasizes
China's development depends on scientific
knowledge, technological progress and President Hu Jintao
innovation, with a top priority on energy, water
and resource conservation and environmental
protection.

The 11th 5 Year Plan is unprecedented in giving
highest priority to pursuing the 4E’s over the
traditional fixation on resource expansion.
Premier Wen Jiabao

Avoided Emissions & Savings
per China EPP
Each 300 MW Conventional Coal Power Plant (CPP)
Eliminated by an equivalent Efficiency Power Plant (EPP)
(1.8 billion kWh per year)
Eliminates 6,000 to 8,000 railroad car shipments of coal delivered each year
Avoids burning 600,000 to 800,000 tons coal
Avoids emitting 5,400 tons SO2
Avoids emitting 5,400 tons NOx
Avoids emitting 2 million tons CO2
Avoids significant quantities of toxic mercury, cadmium, arsenic, and other heavy
metals
Avoids Waste generation of 70,000 tons/year of sludge
Saves 45 billion gallons waters
Accrues $67.5 million annual savings
Avoids Externalized cost from pollutants between $50 million & $360 million per year

And EPPs generates several times more jobs per $ of investment
[1]
Estimated at between 2.7 to 20 cents per kWh by the European Commission, Directorate-General XII, Science, Research and
Development, JOULE, ExternE: Externalities of Energy, Methodology Report, 1998, www.externe.info/reportex/vol2.pdf
T T

Amory Lovins & Imran Sheikh, The Nuclear Illusion, May 2008, www.rmi.org

How much coal-fired electricity can be displaced by investing
one dollar to make or save delivered electricity


Operating CO2 emitted per delivered kWh


Coal-fired CO2 emissions displaced per dollar spent on electrical services


CHINA WATER

Chinese Paddlefish
(21 feet long)

CHINA TO CONSTRUCT 200 DAMS IN
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS
Dadu He Min Jiang

Ya
lo
ng
Map shows hydro dams planned on
rivers running through the biodiversity

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hotspots in Sichuan and Yunnan

gtze
provinces.
Jiang

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Yet, China has other economically

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savings through farm drip irrigation, >150 MW
and low-cost combined heat & power

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CHINA SOUTH TO NORTH WATER DIVERSION PROJECTS

Will take water from Yangtze basin and
transfer over 1000 km to Yellow, Huaihe
and Haihe river basins in the North.
Plans for the water transfer schemes are
based on questionable assumptions, (e.g.,
exaggerated water consumption
predictions). Beijing’s population
increased 20% since 1980, but city’s total
water consumption remained same, due
to realistic municipal water pricing and
industrial water saving initiatives.
Even by official estimates, water savings
in the 3 drought-stricken northern Chinese
provinces is 50-90 billion m3 (vs. 60 billion
m3 the whole S-N scheme could divert.

WWF China, The unacceptable cost of the proposed south-north water transfer scheme in China, 2001, cited in WWF, Dam Right!
Rivers at Risk, Dams & Future of Freshwater Ecosystems, 2003.

Dam Construction Destruction

The building of
access roads to the
construction site of
the Xiaowan dam on
the Upper Mekong
(Lancang) river in
China has already
caused considerable
damage.

WWF, Dam Right! Rivers at Risk, Dams & Future of Freshwater Ecosystems, 2003

Cheaper to capture losses
than expand dams

Guri dam, Venezuela Leaking water distribution pipes

Half of proposed global dams not cost-effective against a large
and expanding pool of water & energy efficiency options.
For example, in Latin America, water distribution losses have been estimated at
some 9 trillion m3 per year, or 1/3rd of the total water collected and treated.
Losses could be cut by 3/4th if international water delivery standards were
achieved, saving money & foregoing new dams.
Source:Savedoff, W and Spiller, Agua perdida(Spilled Water), 1999, Inter-American Development Bank.

Immense Water Waste

The efficiency of irrigation techniques is low and globally up to 1500
trillion liters (~400 trillion gallons) of water are wasted annually
WWF, Dam Right! Rivers at Risk, Dams & Future of Freshwater Ecosystems, 2003

Soft Water Path
More productive, Less cost, Less damage

Globally, nearly 70% of water withdrawals go to
irrigated agriculture, yet conventional irrigation
can waste as much as 80% of the water.
Such waste is driven by misplaced subsidies and
artificially low water prices, often unconnected to
the amount of water used.
Drip irrigation systems for water intensive crops
such as cotton can mean water savings of up to
80% compared to conventional flood irrigation
systems, but these techniques are out of reach
for most small farmers.
Currently drip irrigation accounts for only 1% of
the world’s irrigated area.

Gleick, Peter H., Global Freshwater Resources: Soft-Path Solutions for the 21st Century, State of the
Planet Special, Science, Nov. 28, 2003 V. 302, pp.1524-28, www.pacinst.org/

Water in Agricultural Production

Water productivity

Micro (drip) irrigation consumes 50% less
water. However, only 1% of all irrigated Small-scale Drip irrigation
land in 2000 was drip irrigating.
In China, vast quantities of agriculture
water are used inefficiently.
In 2000, 97% of all Chinese irrigation
used furrow/ flood irrigation; only 3% was
watered with micro-sprinklers and drip
systems.

Peter Gleick, Global Freshwater Resources, Soft-Path
Solutions for 21st Century, 2003, www.pacinst.org/

Large-scale Drip irrigation

Reverse Osmosis (RO) of Wastewater

Reverse Osmosis estimates
considered valid for China today
ranges from a cost of $0.60 per m3
(1000 liters) for brackish and
wastewater desalination to $1 per m3
for seawater desalination by RO.

Extrapolating from technological trends,
and the promise of ongoing innovations in
lower-cost, higher performance
membranes, seawater desalination costs
will continue to fall. The average cost may
decline to $0.30 per m3 in 2025.

RO of Wastewater into Clean Water

For comparison, China’s
average water prices are
about $0.20 to $0.25 per
m3 for domestic and
industrial use, and $0.34
per m3 for commercial
use, to a high of $0.60/m3
in Tianjin and Dalian.

China’s State Council is
moving to raise the price
of urban water supply in
Beijing to $0.72 per m3.
This reverse-osmosis plant in Ashkelon, Israel, will eventually
turn out 100 million cubic meters of fresh water a year, at a
cost of $0.53 cents per m3, the cheapest ever by a
desalination facility.

RO & CHP Synergism for Clean Water
Desalination of wastewater has double benefits: it
reduces contaminated discharges directly into rivers,
and instead, economically expands the city’s
freshwater supplies rather than importing remote
water resources.

China’s total wastewater discharges annually exceed
60 km3,(16 trillion gallons), and less than one-
seventh of this wastewater was treated as of the late
1990s.

Close to 600 million Chinese people have water
supplies that are contaminated by animal and human
waste.

Harnessing 30 GW of cogeneration available in cities
and industrial facilities potentially could operate
reverse osmosis technologies to purify these
wastewaters, while also providing ancillary energy
services like space and water heating & cooling, etc.

2nd Water Decade, ‘Water for Life’ (2005 to 2015)

By the year 2025, it is estimated that one-third of the world’s population will face
severe and chronic water shortages.

Some 3/4th of the 1.2 billion poor and the 800 million malnourished people in the
world live in affected areas, with subsistence agriculture as their sole or primary
source of food and income. WHO

The UN World Water Development Report (2003) provides global estimates of
funding for the water sector in the range of US$110 to US$180 billion, and
concludes that there is a massive investment gap and that the sources of finance
are inadequate. It is also estimated that the bulk of both current and future
financing comes, and will have to come, from domestic public and private funding
– not international financing through development.

A schematical summary of the amount of food produced, globally, at field level and estimates of the losses, conversions
and wastage in the food chain. Source: Smil (2000). Illustration: Britt-Louise Andersson, SIWI. Cited in Lundqvist, J., C. de Fraiture and
D. Molden. Saving Water: From Field to Fork – Curbing Losses and Wastage in the Food Chain. SIWI Policy Brief. SIWI, 2008.

A study of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs)8 was carried out for WWF in
2004 (ODI, 2004). Updated (at least in principle) every three years and reviewed in
annual progress reports, PRSPs describe each country’s macroeconomic, structural
and social policies/programmes for promoting broad-based growth and reducing
poverty, and are used as a means of identifying investment priorities and financing
needs. Find out more about PRSPs at: http://www.imf.org/external/np/prsp/prsp.asp
and in the WWF-UK guides to PRSPs and water:
http://www.wwf.org.uk/researcher/issues/internationaldevelopment/0000000235.asp

UN Task Force on Water and Sanitation has noted that there is “currently no
global system in place to produce a systematic, continuing, integrated, and
comprehensive global picture of freshwater and its management in relation
to the MDGs” (UN 2005).

Applying the principles of integrated water resource and river basin management –
an introduction, A Report to WWF-UK prepared by: Tim Jones, Peter Newborne
and Bill Phillips, June 2006, www.panda.org/freshwater

Allan, T. (2003). ‘IWRM/IWRAM: a new sanctioned discourse’, SOAS Occasional
Papers, April 2003.

CCICED (2004). Promoting Integrated River Basin Management and Restoring
China’s Living Rivers. Report of the CCICED Task Force on Integrated River Basin
Management. China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and
Development.

ODI (2004 a). ‘Water and Poverty Reduction: review of WRM and WSS under
PRSPs and equivalent development strategies in ten countries’, Report for WWF,
March 2004.

WWF (2002). ‘Managing Water Wisely: promoting sustainable development
through integrated river basin management’, WWF Living Waters Programme,
WWF International, 2002.

The components of the water footprint of a business

WATER NEUTRALITY: a concept paper, Winnie Gerbens-Leenes, Arjen Hoekstra, Richard Holland, Greg Koch, Jack Moss, Pancho
Ndebele, Stuart Orr, Mariska Ronteltap, Eric de Ruyter van Stevenink, Nov 2007, WWF Freshwater Program

Water stress indicators (WSI) taking into account Environmental Water Requirements

Smakhtin, V.; Revenga, C; and Doll, P. 2004. Taking into account environmental water requirements in global-
scale water resources assessments. Comprehensive Assessment Research Report 2. Colombo, Sri Lanka:
Comprehensive Assessment Secretariat.

It takes about 70 times more
water to grow food for people
than people use directly for
domestic purposes – and roughly
1000 times more than people need
for drink.

www.worldwatercouncil.org/virtual_water/documents/virtual_water_final_synthesis.pdf

Hydropower in Africa – key facts

• 290 GW – economically feasible hydropower potential in Africa
• only 7% of the potential developed – vs. 33% globally and 65% in Europe
• Countries with largest potential: Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon,
Ethiopia
• 20 GW, 73 large hydro projects in operation, 4 GW new hydro under
construction
• Key rivers proposed for hydropower development: Congo, Nile, Zambezi
• Proposed Grand Inga Project on Congo: 40,000 MW, would be world’s
largest hydropower project, estimated cost up to US$50 billion
• The Congo River is also the second richest in the world for fish. Fish diversity
could be threatened by insensitive hydropower development
• Downstream fisheries and ecosystems have been heavily impacted by large
hydropower projects, for example in the Zambezi and Senegal Basins
• 400,000 people displaced by dams in Africa

The gross per capita water availability in India is projected to decline from about 1,820 m3/yr in 2001 to as little as 1,140
m3/yr in 2050, as a result of population growth. Another study indicates that India will reach a state of water stress
before 2025, when the availability is projected to fall below 1,000 m3 per capita.

Globally, the negative impacts of future climate change on freshwater systems
are expected to outweigh the benefits (high confidence). By the 2050s, the area
of land subject to increasing water stress due to climate change is projected to be
more than double that with decreasing water stress.
Globally, the area of land classified as very dry has more than doubled since the
1970s.
Many semi-arid and arid areas (e.g., the Mediterranean Basin, western USA,
southern Africa and northeastern Brazil) are particularly exposed to the impacts of
climate change and are projected to suffer a decrease of water resources due to
climate change.
the proportion of land surface in extreme drought at any one time is projected to
increase (likely), in addition to a tendency for drying in continental interiors during
summer, especially in the sub-tropics, low and mid-latitudes.
Water supplies stored in glaciers and snow cover are projected to decline in the
course of the century, thus reducing water availability during warm and dry
periods (through a seasonal shift in streamflow, an increase in the ratio of winter
to annual flows, and reductions in low flows) in regions supplied by melt water
from major mountain ranges, where more than one-sixth of the world’s population
currently live.
Bates, B.C., Z.W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu and J.P. Palutikof, Eds., 2008: Climate Change and Water. Technical, Paper of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 210 pp.

Changes in water quantity and quality due to climate change are expected to
affect food availability, stability, access and utilisation. This is expected to lead to
decreased food security and increased vulnerability of poor rural farmers,
especially in the arid and semi-arid tropics and Asian and African megadeltas.
Adaptation options designed to ensure water supply during average and drought
conditions require integrated demand-side as well as supply-side strategies.
Water resources management clearly impacts on many other policy areas, e.g.,
energy, health, food security and nature conservation. Thus, the appraisal of
adaptation and mitigation options needs to be conducted across multiple water-
dependent sectors.

Bates, B.C., Z.W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu and J.P. Palutikof, Eds., 2008: Climate Change and Water. Technical, Paper of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 210 pp.

Examples of current vulnerabilities of freshwater resources and their
management; in the background, a water stress map based on WaterGAP

Geneva, 210 pp.

Cumulative mean specific mass balances (a) and cumulative total mass balances
(b) of glaciers and ice caps, calculated for large regions

Geneva, 210 pp.

Changes in extremes
based on multi-model
simulations from nine
global coupled climate
models in 2080–2099
relative to 1980–1999.

Stippling denotes areas where
at least five of the nine models
concur in determining that the
change is statistically
significant.

Bates, B.C., Z.W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu and J.P. Palutikof, Eds., 2008: Climate
Change and Water. Technical, Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 210 pp.

Large-scale relative changes in annual runoff for the
period 2090–2099, relative to 1980–1999.

White areas are where less than 66% of the ensemble of 12 models agree on the sign of change, and hatched areas are where more than 90%
of models agree on the sign of change.

Palmer Drought Severity Index

Geneva, 210 pp.

Simulated impact of climate change on long-term
average annual diffuse groundwater recharge

Geneva, 210 pp.

Illustrative map of future climate change impacts related to freshwater
which threaten the sustainable development of the affected regions

Geneva, 210 pp.

(a) Current suitability for rain-fed crops (excluding forest ecosystems).
SI = suitability index; (b) ensemble mean percentage projected change in
annual mean runoff between the present (1980–1999) and 2090–2099.

Geneva, 210 pp.

Source: United Nations
Economic Commission for
Africa (UNECA), Addis Abeba ;
Global Environment Outlook
2000
(GEO), UNEP, Earthscan,
London, 1999.

National virtual water trade balances over the period 1995-1999
Green colored countries have net virtual water export. Red colored countries
have net virtual water import.

A.Y. Hoekstra and P.Q. Hung, Virtual Water Trade A Quantification of Virtual Water Flows Between Nations in Relation to International Crop Trade, September 2002
Value of Water Research Report Series No. 11, IHE Delft.

The real and the virtual
water balance of China in
1999 (data in Gm3/yr).

Arjen Hoekstra, Virtual water trade between nations: a global
mechanism affecting regional water systems, UNESCO-IHE
Institute for Water Education, Delft,

Details of water footprints of the USA, China India and Japan. Period: 1997–2001

USA CHINA

INDIA JAPAN


Contribution of different crops to the global water footprint

A. Y. Hoekstra · A. K. Chapagain, Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their consumption
pattern, Water Resources Management, (2007) 21:35–48

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