social factor of the language

1. Language Variation and ChangeLanguage Variation and Change
Hauptseminar, WS 2007/8, Campus EssenHauptseminar, WS 2007/8, Campus Essen
Raymond Hickey, English LinguisticsRaymond Hickey, English Linguistics

2. Language variation andLanguage variation and
changechange
The above term is used in present-day sociolinguistics toThe above term is used in present-day sociolinguistics to
refer to the small variations which occur in language andrefer to the small variations which occur in language and
which are determined by external, social factors. Thesewhich are determined by external, social factors. These
variations can and do lead in time to language change.variations can and do lead in time to language change.
They contrast with variations in language which areThey contrast with variations in language which are
motivated by internal factors – structural features of amotivated by internal factors – structural features of a
language – which can also lead to change, especiallylanguage – which can also lead to change, especially
when this internal variation occurs during first languagewhen this internal variation occurs during first language
acquisition.acquisition.
Language variation and change is an important researchLanguage variation and change is an important research
paradigm today and there many books on the subject asparadigm today and there many books on the subject as
well as a journal with this term as their name.well as a journal with this term as their name.

3. The following presentation is intended to give students anThe following presentation is intended to give students an
idea of what this course will be about. Basic principlesidea of what this course will be about. Basic principles
and assumptions of language variation and change /and assumptions of language variation and change /
sociolinguistics are explained in the following slides andsociolinguistics are explained in the following slides and
typical concerns of the field can be recognised.typical concerns of the field can be recognised.
To begin with several reasons for going to this seminar areTo begin with several reasons for going to this seminar are
given and then possible themes for presentations andgiven and then possible themes for presentations and
term papers are discussed.term papers are discussed.
Introduction

4. Several good reasons for going to the present seminar:Several good reasons for going to the present seminar:
1)1) To find out about how language and society interacts, how socialTo find out about how language and society interacts, how social
attitudes, social ambition and social bonding affect the manner inattitudes, social ambition and social bonding affect the manner in
which people speak.which people speak.
2)2) To learn about how the internal structure of language interacts withTo learn about how the internal structure of language interacts with
external social factors (language variation and change).external social factors (language variation and change).
3)3) To discover more about how languages change and how they don’t,To discover more about how languages change and how they don’t,
given the significance of social factors on this process.given the significance of social factors on this process.
4)4) To look as specific social situations and see how these generalTo look as specific social situations and see how these general
principles are confirmed or refuted. Key sociolinguisticprinciples are confirmed or refuted. Key sociolinguistic
investigations, largely in America and Britain are of interest here.investigations, largely in America and Britain are of interest here.

5. 5)5) To examine closely how speakers use social networks to stregthenTo examine closely how speakers use social networks to stregthen
their identificaion with the social group to which they feel theytheir identificaion with the social group to which they feel they
belong.belong.
6)6) To look at how men and women use language to express theTo look at how men and women use language to express the
relationship of the sexes (gender-related language use).relationship of the sexes (gender-related language use).
7)7) To see how such socially relevant phenomena as politeness areTo see how such socially relevant phenomena as politeness are
expressed in different languages.expressed in different languages.
8)8) To learn about the wider context in which societies are embeddedTo learn about the wider context in which societies are embedded
and how language relates to culture in general (linguisticand how language relates to culture in general (linguistic
anthropology).anthropology).
9)9) To throw new light on the relationship of the standard of a languageTo throw new light on the relationship of the standard of a language
and the dialects which are also found. In the Anglophone context, toand the dialects which are also found. In the Anglophone context, to
consider how and why regional standards arose and how countries,consider how and why regional standards arose and how countries,
which are now independent, developed standards of their own.which are now independent, developed standards of their own.

6. Areas for presentations and term essaysAreas for presentations and term essays
(these areas are quite large and issues within them can be(these areas are quite large and issues within them can be
treated separately in different sessions if students wish)treated separately in different sessions if students wish)
1)1) The history of sociolinguistics / language variation and change as anThe history of sociolinguistics / language variation and change as an
approach in linguisticsapproach in linguistics
2)2) Models of sociolinguistics (accommodation, social networks)Models of sociolinguistics (accommodation, social networks)
3)3) Individual studies dealing with language variation and change (NewIndividual studies dealing with language variation and change (New
York, Norwich, Belfast, Dublin, etc.) (also possible: EnglishYork, Norwich, Belfast, Dublin, etc.) (also possible: English
overseas, extraterritorial varieties)overseas, extraterritorial varieties)
4)4) Sociolinguistics and gender-related language differencesSociolinguistics and gender-related language differences
5)5) Sociolinguistics and speech act theorySociolinguistics and speech act theory

7. Areas for presentations and term essaysAreas for presentations and term essays
(continued)(continued)
6)6) Sociolinguistics, solidarity and politenessSociolinguistics, solidarity and politeness
7)7) Sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology, ethnolinguisticsSociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology, ethnolinguistics
8)8) Sociolinguistics and language changeSociolinguistics and language change
9)9) Sociolinguistics and second language acquisitionSociolinguistics and second language acquisition
10)10) Sociolinguistics and education, language planningSociolinguistics and education, language planning

8.  SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics as a separate discipline develops in the earlyas a separate discipline develops in the early
sixties, first in the USA, later in Britain and then throughout the restsixties, first in the USA, later in Britain and then throughout the rest
of the western world. This is true although considerations ofof the western world. This is true although considerations of
language in relation to society go back a considerable way andlanguage in relation to society go back a considerable way and
although the significance of society for language was stressed byalthough the significance of society for language was stressed by
the structuralists at the beginning of the 20th century.the structuralists at the beginning of the 20th century.
 SociologySociology is the study of social structures. This is a discipline whichis the study of social structures. This is a discipline which
was developed into its modern form in 19th century France and inwas developed into its modern form in 19th century France and in
Germany in the early 20th century. In its analysis of social forces itGermany in the early 20th century. In its analysis of social forces it
is of immediate relevance to sociolinguistics although sociologyis of immediate relevance to sociolinguistics although sociology
itself is not concerned with language.itself is not concerned with language.
Sociolinguistics and sociology

9.  The basic assumption of sociolinguistics is that theThe basic assumption of sociolinguistics is that the variationvariation we can observewe can observe
in language isin language is non-randomnon-random, i.e. variation in language is, i.e. variation in language is socially significantsocially significant..
The task of the sociolinguist has been to quantify this variation and to give aThe task of the sociolinguist has been to quantify this variation and to give a
principled account of its occurrence. In a nutshell the findings ofprincipled account of its occurrence. In a nutshell the findings of
sociolinguistics have shown that language variation is largely determined bysociolinguistics have shown that language variation is largely determined by
social class and status. Variation furthermore correlates with the relativesocial class and status. Variation furthermore correlates with the relative
security of a group´s position in society with a general tendency of lower-security of a group´s position in society with a general tendency of lower-
status groups to imitate higher-status groups as long as this imitation has astatus groups to imitate higher-status groups as long as this imitation has a
chance of leading to an improvement of social status as with the lower-chance of leading to an improvement of social status as with the lower-
middle classes in the western world.middle classes in the western world.
 There is often a discrepancy between what speakersThere is often a discrepancy between what speakers saysay of their languageof their language
and what theyand what they practicepractice. For instance in Peter Trudgill´s study of English in. For instance in Peter Trudgill´s study of English in
Norwich it was shown that the working-class have a low opinion of their ownNorwich it was shown that the working-class have a low opinion of their own
variety of language but continue to use it. This led to assuming that varietiesvariety of language but continue to use it. This led to assuming that varieties
can havecan have covertcovert prestige for their speakers.prestige for their speakers.
Some basic assumptions

10. Sociolinguistics and dialectologySociolinguistics and dialectology
 In a way it is true to say that sociolinguistics arose out of dialectology.In a way it is true to say that sociolinguistics arose out of dialectology.
Those linguists involved in this area in the last century and the beginning ofThose linguists involved in this area in the last century and the beginning of
the present century were interested in registering language use and as suchthe present century were interested in registering language use and as such
were half on the way to being sociolinguists. However, many aspects ofwere half on the way to being sociolinguists. However, many aspects of
dialectological research are unacceptable to modern sociolinguists. Thedialectological research are unacceptable to modern sociolinguists. The
chief deficiency of the dialectological approach is that older, male, ruralchief deficiency of the dialectological approach is that older, male, rural
speakers were given preference as informants. This went against the basicspeakers were given preference as informants. This went against the basic
principle of all sociolinguists, namely that the choice of informants beprinciple of all sociolinguists, namely that the choice of informants be
random and thus unbiased by the field worker. Characteristic ofrandom and thus unbiased by the field worker. Characteristic of
sociolinguistic methods are the following features:sociolinguistic methods are the following features:
 1)1) The prior definition of one's area of investigationThe prior definition of one's area of investigation
 2)2) The impartial choice of informantsThe impartial choice of informants
 3)3) The choice of optimal methods of investigation (e.g. tape recordingThe choice of optimal methods of investigation (e.g. tape recording
rather than questionnaire)rather than questionnaire)

11. Gathering informationGathering information
 The procedure of interviewing informants has the disadvantage that the field workerThe procedure of interviewing informants has the disadvantage that the field worker
very often has a negative (or standardising) effect on the informants. This is calledvery often has a negative (or standardising) effect on the informants. This is called
thethe observer'sobserver's paradoxparadox, namely that the nature of the object of investigation changes, namely that the nature of the object of investigation changes
under observation (more on this below). A dialogue situation in which the informant isunder observation (more on this below). A dialogue situation in which the informant is
not made aware of his status as informant is much more favourable and less likely tonot made aware of his status as informant is much more favourable and less likely to
distort the results.distort the results.
Types of language variationTypes of language variation
 Just as the methods of the dialectologists were unacceptable to sociolinguists so wasJust as the methods of the dialectologists were unacceptable to sociolinguists so was
the terminology they used. For one thing the sociolinguists wanted to get away fromthe terminology they used. For one thing the sociolinguists wanted to get away from
the use of the termthe use of the term dialectdialect. It carried with it the implication of a rural type of speech. It carried with it the implication of a rural type of speech
which is particularly conservative. The more neutral termwhich is particularly conservative. The more neutral term varietyvariety was chosen whichwas chosen which
had the additional advantage that it did not imply implicit contrast with a standardhad the additional advantage that it did not imply implicit contrast with a standard
variety of language. The termvariety of language. The term varietyvariety simply refers to a variant of a language. It maysimply refers to a variant of a language. It may
be the standard of this language or not, it may be a rural or an urban variant, a socialbe the standard of this language or not, it may be a rural or an urban variant, a social
or peer group variant, etc.or peer group variant, etc.

12. Contact between speakersContact between speakers
 One of the aspects of contact between speakers of different varieties of aOne of the aspects of contact between speakers of different varieties of a
language islanguage is accommodationaccommodation. By this is meant that one of the speakers. By this is meant that one of the speakers
attempts, in fact to face interaction, to approximate his speech to that of hisattempts, in fact to face interaction, to approximate his speech to that of his
partner in conversation for a variety of reasons, to make him feel at ease, inpartner in conversation for a variety of reasons, to make him feel at ease, in
order to be accepted, etc. This accomodation can be long-term or short-order to be accepted, etc. This accomodation can be long-term or short-
term and is most readily accomplished by children.term and is most readily accomplished by children.
The linguistic variableThe linguistic variable
 This term refers to a specific feature of a language which shows particularThis term refers to a specific feature of a language which shows particular
variation in a community and which is used as a tag for classifying avariation in a community and which is used as a tag for classifying a
speaker's speech. For example in New York the realisation of /r/ is just suchspeaker's speech. For example in New York the realisation of /r/ is just such
a variable. A common non-linguistic designation for a linguistic variable,a variable. A common non-linguistic designation for a linguistic variable,
which derives from the Bible, iswhich derives from the Bible, is shibbolethshibboleth, speakers of one community, speakers of one community
pronouncing this word with an initialpronouncing this word with an initial shsh-sound and speakers of another-sound and speakers of another
pronouncing it with an initialpronouncing it with an initial ss-sound, i.e. /sh/ versus /s/. A linguistic variable-sound, i.e. /sh/ versus /s/. A linguistic variable
need not only be phonological. Examples of grammatical variables areneed not only be phonological. Examples of grammatical variables are
double negation, the use ofdouble negation, the use of ain'tain't and the lack of marking with verbs in theand the lack of marking with verbs in the
3rd person singular among African Americans.3rd person singular among African Americans.

13. Indicators and markersIndicators and markers
 It has been established in the case of the variable (ng) (as in EnglishIt has been established in the case of the variable (ng) (as in English walkingwalking [w>:kin])[w>:kin])
that the index scores for [n] — as in [w>:kin] — tend to decrease as the formality ofthat the index scores for [n] — as in [w>:kin] — tend to decrease as the formality of
the speech situation increases, no matter which particular social group is involved.the speech situation increases, no matter which particular social group is involved.
One explanation for this focusses on the fact that whenever there is classOne explanation for this focusses on the fact that whenever there is class
differentiation with a linguistic variable, speakers of all classes will direct theirdifferentiation with a linguistic variable, speakers of all classes will direct their
attention towards the higher status variants and tend to increase their use of thoseattention towards the higher status variants and tend to increase their use of those
variants. Stylistic variation is, going by this account, a direct result of social classvariants. Stylistic variation is, going by this account, a direct result of social class
variation.variation.
Class and styleClass and style
 However, not all variables which are subject to class differentiation show stylisticHowever, not all variables which are subject to class differentiation show stylistic
variation as well, i.e. variables correlate with social class variation in terms of differentvariation as well, i.e. variables correlate with social class variation in terms of different
index scores, but do not alter even if the speech situation changes. Variables whichindex scores, but do not alter even if the speech situation changes. Variables which
are subject to stylistic variation as well as class, sex or age variation are referred toare subject to stylistic variation as well as class, sex or age variation are referred to
asas markersmarkers. Variables which are not involved in systematic style variation are called. Variables which are not involved in systematic style variation are called
indicatorsindicators, an example would be the fricative, an example would be the fricative tt [8] of southern Irish English, in a word[8] of southern Irish English, in a word
likelike putput [pu8], which is found in all styles of this variety of English. Indicators do not[pu8], which is found in all styles of this variety of English. Indicators do not
contribute to the description of class differences as markers do, since speakerscontribute to the description of class differences as markers do, since speakers
appear to be less aware of the social implications of an indicator than of a marker.appear to be less aware of the social implications of an indicator than of a marker.

14. Geographical variation and language contactGeographical variation and language contact
 Variation has not only social sources but also spatial ones. WhenVariation has not only social sources but also spatial ones. When
speakers disseminate into new locations, the language they takespeakers disseminate into new locations, the language they take
with them changes with time, for instance, in Canada or South Africawith them changes with time, for instance, in Canada or South Africa
where there has been considerable language contact. Thesewhere there has been considerable language contact. These
changes very often are connected with the establishment of differentchanges very often are connected with the establishment of different
standard forms of languages at the new locations (as in centralstandard forms of languages at the new locations (as in central
Canada). Furthermore, at overseas locations, English has beenCanada). Furthermore, at overseas locations, English has been
subject to language contact and this has in turn led to changes insubject to language contact and this has in turn led to changes in
the forms of the language when this has taken place. South Africa isthe forms of the language when this has taken place. South Africa is
a good example of a contact situation with Afrikaans (a colonial forma good example of a contact situation with Afrikaans (a colonial form
of early modern Dutch) the language with which English has been inof early modern Dutch) the language with which English has been in
contact.contact.

15. The work of William LabovThe work of William Labov
 The main sociolinguist is William Labov,The main sociolinguist is William Labov,
an American linguist who started byan American linguist who started by
investigating language use in Martha´sinvestigating language use in Martha´s
Vineyard (an island off the north-eastVineyard (an island off the north-east
coast of the United States) and in Newcoast of the United States) and in New
York city. His seminal investigations wereYork city. His seminal investigations were
based on principles and methods whichbased on principles and methods which
have become standard in sociolinguisticshave become standard in sociolinguistics
and which led to insights which areand which led to insights which are
generally accepted today.generally accepted today.

16. Labov´s principles and assumptionsLabov´s principles and assumptions
1)1) Basic assumption: Linguistic variation is socially determined.Basic assumption: Linguistic variation is socially determined.
2)2) Speakers are in a double bind: on the one hand they show anSpeakers are in a double bind: on the one hand they show an
identification with their locality through the use of a local variety ofidentification with their locality through the use of a local variety of
language. On the other hand they aspire to social acceptability andlanguage. On the other hand they aspire to social acceptability and
hence in their speech they move towards the standard of their area.hence in their speech they move towards the standard of their area.
3)3) Surreptitious interview methods mean that the observers paradox isSurreptitious interview methods mean that the observers paradox is
minimised. (N.B.: The observer´s paradox maintains that theminimised. (N.B.: The observer´s paradox maintains that the
linguistic behaviour of informants changes under observation,linguistic behaviour of informants changes under observation,
usually because people then talk the way they think the linguistusually because people then talk the way they think the linguist
wants them to).wants them to).

17. LabovLabov´´s data collection methodss data collection methods
 Labov further stressed the need to collect data reliably. The linguistLabov further stressed the need to collect data reliably. The linguist
must be aware that an informant will show the following features inmust be aware that an informant will show the following features in
his speech: 1) style shifting (during an interview), 2) varying degreehis speech: 1) style shifting (during an interview), 2) varying degree
of attention, i.e. some speakers pay great attention to their ownof attention, i.e. some speakers pay great attention to their own
speech (so-called 'audio-monitoring'); in excited speech and casualspeech (so-called 'audio-monitoring'); in excited speech and casual
speech the attention paid by the speaker is correspondinglyspeech the attention paid by the speaker is correspondingly
diminished, 3) degree of formality, determined by the nature of thediminished, 3) degree of formality, determined by the nature of the
interview; it can vary depending on how the informant reacts to theinterview; it can vary depending on how the informant reacts to the
interviewer and the situation he/she is placed in.interviewer and the situation he/she is placed in.

18. How does language change?How does language change?
With regard to language change William Labov proposed three phasesWith regard to language change William Labov proposed three phases
which can be summarised as follows: 1)which can be summarised as follows: 1) originorigin, a period in which many, a period in which many
variants exist for one and the same phenomenon, 2)variants exist for one and the same phenomenon, 2) propagationpropagation, the period, the period
in which one of the variants established itself and 3) thein which one of the variants established itself and 3) the conclusionconclusion in whichin which
the remaining variants are done away with. Various external factors canthe remaining variants are done away with. Various external factors can
accelerate the process of language change, above all social pressure fromaccelerate the process of language change, above all social pressure from
above or below. Additional factors are the degree of literacy in a community,above or below. Additional factors are the degree of literacy in a community,
the restraining influence of a standard of a language, etc. Schematicallythe restraining influence of a standard of a language, etc. Schematically
these three phases correspond to the beginning, middle and end of an S-these three phases correspond to the beginning, middle and end of an S-
curve which is frequently used as a visualisation of language change (seecurve which is frequently used as a visualisation of language change (see
next slide).next slide).
 Labov proved his theories on language variation and language change byLabov proved his theories on language variation and language change by
investigating (in an anonymous manner) the English of various employees ininvestigating (in an anonymous manner) the English of various employees in
New York department stores. Here he chose stores with differing socialNew York department stores. Here he chose stores with differing social
status. The linguistic variables he was particularly interested in are: (1) thestatus. The linguistic variables he was particularly interested in are: (1) the
presence or absence of syllable-final /r/, (2) the pronounciation of the ambi-presence or absence of syllable-final /r/, (2) the pronounciation of the ambi-
dental fricatives (/dental fricatives (/θθ/ and // and /ðð/ respectively) and (3) the quality of various/ respectively) and (3) the quality of various
vowels.vowels.

20. Insights of sociolinguisticsInsights of sociolinguistics
Language change can be observedLanguage change can be observed
 The reasons for it are ultimately social, deriving from such factors asThe reasons for it are ultimately social, deriving from such factors as
forms used by prestigious groups. Any item of change starts as aforms used by prestigious groups. Any item of change starts as a
series of minute variations which spread through the lexicon of theseries of minute variations which spread through the lexicon of the
language (language (lexicallexical diffusiondiffusion). The difference between varying forms). The difference between varying forms
increases with time, due to a process known as phonologisationincreases with time, due to a process known as phonologisation
whereby small differences are exaggerated to make them distinctwhereby small differences are exaggerated to make them distinct
from other phonemic items in a language. Only a subset of anyfrom other phonemic items in a language. Only a subset of any
existing variations in a language at any point in time lead to actualexisting variations in a language at any point in time lead to actual
later change. Just what variations result in change depends on theirlater change. Just what variations result in change depends on their
status for the speakers of a language. This status may be consciousstatus for the speakers of a language. This status may be conscious
in the case of identification markers or subconscious, the latter notin the case of identification markers or subconscious, the latter not
being any less important than the former for language change.being any less important than the former for language change.

21. Which class is most active?Which class is most active?
 Lower middle class speakers figure prominently in language change as theyLower middle class speakers figure prominently in language change as they
aspire upwards on the social scale.aspire upwards on the social scale.
The behaviour of womenThe behaviour of women
 Women tend to use a more standard type of language than their maleWomen tend to use a more standard type of language than their male
counterparts (due to their uncertain position in western-style societies?). Oncounterparts (due to their uncertain position in western-style societies?). On
the other hand, however, women tend to represent the vanguard in athe other hand, however, women tend to represent the vanguard in a
situation of socially motivated language change.situation of socially motivated language change.
The reversal of changeThe reversal of change
 Language change can in some cases be reversed, i.e. more conservativeLanguage change can in some cases be reversed, i.e. more conservative
(older) forms can be re-established if enough speakers use them for(older) forms can be re-established if enough speakers use them for
purposes of conscious or unconscious identification.purposes of conscious or unconscious identification.

22. Further issues in sociolinguisticsFurther issues in sociolinguistics
1)1) Social networksSocial networks (smaller and more powerful in their bonds than social classes)(smaller and more powerful in their bonds than social classes)
2)2) Dissociation as a form of language changeDissociation as a form of language change (changing your language to become more(changing your language to become more
different from others, usually speakers of low prestige.)different from others, usually speakers of low prestige.)
3)3) Sociolinguistics and gender differencesSociolinguistics and gender differences (to what extent does the social role of the(to what extent does the social role of the
genders determine their linguistic usage?)genders determine their linguistic usage?)
4)4) Solidarity and politenessSolidarity and politeness are further issues in individual sociolinguistic interaction andare further issues in individual sociolinguistic interaction and
have to do with maintaining one´s status and respect in interpersonal communicationhave to do with maintaining one´s status and respect in interpersonal communication
(technically called(technically called faceface).).
5)5) Sociolinguistics and second language acquisitionSociolinguistics and second language acquisition (how do social factors improve or(how do social factors improve or
inhibit the quality of second language acquisition?).inhibit the quality of second language acquisition?).
6)6) Sociolinguistics and educationSociolinguistics and education (how are children socialised into their environment(how are children socialised into their environment
through the schools they go to? To what extent do governments try to imposethrough the schools they go to? To what extent do governments try to impose
linguistic standards in their countries via the educational system?)linguistic standards in their countries via the educational system?)

23. Types of speech communities: BilingualismTypes of speech communities: Bilingualism
A type of linguistic situation in which two languages co-exist in a
country or language community without there being a notable
distribution according to function or social class. Within Europe
Belgium, in those parts where French and Flemish are spoken
side by side, provides an example of bilingualism. Do not confuse
this with diglossia. A bilingual is an individual who speaks two
languages almost equally and does not show a functional
distribution of the languages. One must stress 'almost equally' as
one language nearly always predominates with any given
individual. True bilingualism can be seen as an ideal state which
one can approach but never entirely reach.

24. Types of speech communities: DiglossiaTypes of speech communities: Diglossia
A type of linguistic situation in which there is a division between two
languages or two varieties of a language such that one variety, the so-
called 'high' or H variety, is used in public life — in addresses, in the
media, in schools and universities, etc. — and another variety, the so-
called 'low' variety or L variety, is used in domestic life — with family
and friends. Examples of diglossic situations are to be found in
Switzerland (Hochdeutsch and Schwizerdütsch), in various Arabian
countries (Classical Arabic and the local dialect of Arabic), Paraguay
(Spanish and Guaraní).

25. Types of speech communities: Language SplitTypes of speech communities: Language Split
This term is used to refer to the type of situation which obtains when for
political reasons two varieties which are scarcely distinguishable are
forcibly differentiated to maximalise differences between two countries.
This applies to the Moldavian dialect of Rumanian, which is now written
in Cyrillic and is the language of the Republic of Moldavia within the
former Soviet Union, and the remaining dialects of Rumanian. It also
applies to Hindi, the official language of India, alongside English, and
Urdu, the official language of Pakistan. Note that in these situations
much use is made of different writing systems. Thus Hindi is written
from left to right in the Devanagari script while Urdu is written right to
left in the Persian variant of Arabic. Once language split has been
introduced the differences may become real with time, e.g. with Hindi
and Urdu the different religions make for different vocabulary which
helps the originally artificial distinction between the languages to
become real. Historically in Europe Dutch and the Lower Rhenish
dialects represent a case of language split.

26. Types of speech communities: LanguageTypes of speech communities: Language
MaintenanceMaintenance
The extent to which immigrant speakers of a certain language retain
knowledge of the original language in the host country into the following
generations. Here language communities vary. The Irish, for example,
gave up their native language immediately in the United States whereas
the Estonians have shown a remarkable degree of language
maintenance. The reasons for this have to do with the attitude of the
respective groups to their original language. For the Irish their native
language was associated with a background of poverty and deprivation
and so they switched gladly to English in America.

27. Types of speech communities: LanguageTypes of speech communities: Language
PreservationPreservation
This is the extent to which a country has official institutions to preserve
the language in an ostensibly pure form. For example, in France an
academy has existed since 1634 which acts as a watchdog over the
purity of French. There is no corresponding institution in England or
Germany (though South Africa, as the only Anglophone country, does
have a language academy). In the latter two countries, major
publishing houses play the role of language academies, the Oxford
University Press in England and the Bibliographisches Institut
(Mannheim) in Germany, the publishers of the Duden series of
reference books. One should add that the value of prescriptive organs
is very much disputed as they cannot stop language change in the
form of borrowing (cf. the influence of English on French despite the
efforts of the academy).

28. Types of speech communities: Language DeathTypes of speech communities: Language Death
This highly emotive term is sometimes applied to those social situations
in which a language ceases to exist. The fact itself is of little concern, it
is rather the stages which the language goes through which arouse the
interest of the linguist. A well-studied instance of language death is
Scottish Gaelic in East Sutherland in the north-east of Scotland. The
language was progressively abandoned from one generation to the next
and during this process the grammar of the language showed clear
signs of disintegration, for example in its morphological system. In such
a scenario the attention of the linguist is directed at the question
whether significant generalisations can be made concerning this
grammatical decay.

29. Recommended literatureRecommended literature
Auer, Peter, Frans Hinskens and Paul Kerswill (eds) 2005.Auer, Peter, Frans Hinskens and Paul Kerswill (eds) 2005. Dialect Change. ConvergenceDialect Change. Convergence
and Divergence in European Languages.and Divergence in European Languages. Cambridge: University Press.Cambridge: University Press.
Britain, David (ed.)Britain, David (ed.) Language in the British Isles.Language in the British Isles. 2nd edition. Cambridge: University Press.2nd edition. Cambridge: University Press.
Chambers, Jack 2003.Chambers, Jack 2003. Sociolinguistic theory. Linguistic variation and its socialSociolinguistic theory. Linguistic variation and its social
significancesignificance. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell.. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Chambers, J. K., Peter Trudgill and Natalie Schilling-Estes (eds) 2002.Chambers, J. K., Peter Trudgill and Natalie Schilling-Estes (eds) 2002. The Handbook ofThe Handbook of
Language Variation and ChangeLanguage Variation and Change, Malden / Oxford: Blackwell., Malden / Oxford: Blackwell.
Eckert, Penelope and John R. Rickford (eds) 2002.Eckert, Penelope and John R. Rickford (eds) 2002. Style and Sociolinguistic VariationStyle and Sociolinguistic Variation..
Cambridge: University Press.Cambridge: University Press.
Holmes, Janet 1992.Holmes, Janet 1992. An introduction to sociolinguistics.An introduction to sociolinguistics. London: Longman.London: Longman.
Lippi-Green, Rosina 1997.Lippi-Green, Rosina 1997. English with an Accent. Language, Ideology and DiscriminationEnglish with an Accent. Language, Ideology and Discrimination
in the United States.in the United States. London: Routledge.London: Routledge.
Mesthrie, Rajend et al. (eds) 2000.Mesthrie, Rajend et al. (eds) 2000. Introducing sociolinguisticsIntroducing sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: University. Edinburgh: University
Press.Press.
Mugglestone, Lynda 2003.Mugglestone, Lynda 2003. ‘Talking Proper’. The Rise of Accent as Social Symbol‘Talking Proper’. The Rise of Accent as Social Symbol. 2nd. 2nd
edition. Oxford: University Press.edition. Oxford: University Press.
Romaine, Suzanne 2000.Romaine, Suzanne 2000. Language in society. An introduction to sociolinguistics.Language in society. An introduction to sociolinguistics. 2nd2nd
edition. Oxford: University Press.edition. Oxford: University Press.