Introduction to managent and leadership

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-116-1©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
JOHN R. SCHERMERHORN, JR.JOHN R. SCHERMERHORN, JR.
MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT
1212thth
EditionEdition
Chapter 16Chapter 16
Motivation Theory
and Practice

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-2
Planning Ahead — Chapter 16 Study Questions
1. How do individual needs influence
motivation?
2. What are the process theories of
motivation?
3. What role does reinforcement play in
motivation?
4. What is the link between job design and
motivation?

Chapter 16 Learning Dashboard
1. Individual Needs and Motivation
1. Hierarchy of needs theory
2. ERG theory
3. Two-factor theory
4. Acquired needs theory
2. Process Theories of Motivation
1. Equity theory
2. Expectancy theory
3. Goal-setting theory
4. Self-efficacy theory

Chapter 16 Learning Dashboard
3. Reinforcement Theory
1. Reinforcement strategies
2. Positive reinforcement
3. Punishment
3. Motivation and Job Design
1. Job simplification
2. Job enrichment
3. Alternative work schedules

Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation
Motivation—the forces within the individual
that account for the level, direction, and
persistence of effort expended at work

Needs
– Unfulfilled physiological and psychological
desires of an individual
– Explain workplace behavior and attitudes
– Create tensions that influence attitudes and
behavior
– Good managers and leaders facilitate employee
need satisfaction

Hierarchy of needs theory
– Developed by Abraham Maslow
– Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace
behavior and attitudes
– Lower-order needs:
• Physiological, safety, and social needs
• Desires for physical and social well being
– Higher-order needs:
• Esteem and self-actualization needs
• Desire for psychological growth and development

Figure 16.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy
of human needs

Hierarchy of needs theory
–Deficit principle
• A satisfied need is not a motivator of
behavior
–Progression principle
• A need at one level does not become
activated until the next lower-level need is
satisfied

ERG theory
–Developed by Clayton Alderfer
–Three need levels

ERG theory
–Any/all needs can influence behavior at
one time
–Frustration-regression principle
• An already satisfied lower-level need becomes
reactivated when a higher-level need is
frustrated

Two-factor theory
–Developed by Frederick Herzberg
–Hygiene factors:
• Elements of the job context
• Sources of job dissatisfaction
–Satisfier factors:
• Elements of the job content
• Sources of job satisfaction and motivation

Figure 16.2 Elements in Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Acquired needs theory
–Developed by David McClelland
–People acquire needs through their life
experiences
–Needs that are acquired:

– Need for Achievement (nAch)
• Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to
solve problems, or to master complex tasks
– People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
• Involves individual responsibility for results
• Involves achievable but challenging goals
• Provides feedback on performance

– Need for Power (nPower)
• Desire to control other persons, to influence their
behavior, or to be responsible for other people
• Personal power versus social power
– People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
• Involves control over other persons
• Has an impact on people and events
• Brings public recognition and attention

– Need for Affiliation (nAff)
• Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm
relations with other persons
– People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
• Involves interpersonal relationships
• Provides for companionship
• Brings social approval

Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
• Process theories of motivation …
– How people make choices to work hard or not
– Choices are based on:
• Individual preferences
• Available rewards
• Possible work outcomes
• Types of process theories:
– Equity theory
– Expectancy theory
– Goal-setting theory

Equity theory
– Developed by J. Stacy Adams
– When people believe that they have been
treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try
to eliminate the discomfort and restore a
perceived sense of equity to the situation
• Perceived inequity
• Perceived equity

Equity theory
– People respond to perceived negative inequity by
changing …
• Work inputs
• Rewards received
• Referent’s inputs or outcomes
• Comparison points
• Situation

Expectancy theory
– Developed by Victor Vroom
– Key expectancy theory variables:
• Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in
desired level of performance
• Instrumentality — belief that successful performance
will be followed by rewards
• Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and
other work related outcomes

Goal-setting theory
– Developed by Edwin Locke
– Properly set and well-managed task goals can be
highly motivating
– Motivational effects of task goals:
• Provide direction to people in their work
• Clarify performance expectations
• Establish a frame of reference for feedback
• Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management

Goal-setting theory
– Participation in goal setting
• unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting
• management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation
• when participation is not possible, workers will
respond positively if supervisory trust and support
exist

Self-Efficacy Theory
– a person’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task
– Capability directly affects motivation
• higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy
• self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting

Self-Efficacy Theory
– Enactive mastery
• person gains confidence through positive experience
– Vicarious modeling
• learning by observing others
– Verbal persuasion
• encouragement from others that one can perform a task
– Emotional arousal
• high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation

Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory
Fundamentals of reinforcement theory
– Focuses on the impact of external environmental
consequences on behavior
– Law of effect — behavior followed by pleasant
consequences is likely to be repeated: behavior
followed by unpleasant consequences is not

Operant conditioning:
–Developed by B.F. Skinner
–Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences

Operant conditioning strategies:
– Positive reinforcement
• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence
– Negative reinforcement
• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence

Operant conditioning strategies:
– Punishment
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of an unpleasant
consequence
– Extinction
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an pleasant consequence

Successful implementation of positive
reinforcement is based on
– Law of contingent reinforcement —
• Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited
– Law of immediate reinforcement —
• More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more
reinforcement value it has

Schedules of reinforcement:
– Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each
time a desired behavior occurs
– Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically
– Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement
– Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is
more permanent
– Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to it

Introduction to managent and leadership

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