1. LEADERSHIP
THEORIES
Nelia B. Perez RN, MSN
PCU – Mary Johnston
College of Nursing
Philippines 1012

2. Leadership . . .
A subject that provokes many questions.

3. Important Questions
 Why do some leaders inspire?
 How do some leaders create empires?
 How can some losers come to occupy
places of great power?
 Why do some followers suddenly reject their
leaders?
 Why are some followers willing to give their
lives for the leader?

4. Drucker: "Leadership is
something scientific but has
artistic expression"

5. What makes for a good
leader?
Is it…

6. Compassion?

7. Persistence?

8. Charisma?

9. Service to others?

10. Ambition?

11. Energetic?
Herb Kelleher -
Southwest Airlines

12. Vision?
(Sam Walton -
WalMart)
Making a case, in 1986, in
Little Rock, Ark., that
buying American products
could be the answer to the
country's trade deficit

13. Revolutionary
Spirit?

14. Nonconformity?
(Richard Branson
- Virgin Atlantic)

15. Ability to produce
change/Crusader?

16. Passion for
Change?

17. (When babies are born, we now
say: “Congratulations, it's a
Leader!”)

18. Drucker: "Leadership is
something scientific but has
artistic expression"

19. Theoretical Review:
 1.Great Man theory
Dowd (1936):
History and social institutions shaped by the
leadership of great men and women
(e.g., Moses, Mohammed, Jeanne
d’Arc, Washington, Gandhi, Churchill, etc.). Dowd
(1936) maintained that “there is no such thing as
leadership by the masses. The individuals in every
society possess different degrees of
intelligence, energy and moral force, and in
whatever direction the masses may be influenced to
go, they are always led by the superior few.”

20.  GREAT MAN THEORY
 Late 19 th. & 20 th. Century
 Leader is born with innate, unexplainable
and, for mere mortals incomprehensible
leadership qualities
 Elevated as heroes

21. Theoretical Review:
 2. Trait theory
L.L.Bernard (1926); Bingham (1927); Kilbourne
(1935); Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991); Kohs & Irle
(1920); Page (1935); Tead (1929):
• The leader is endowed with superior traits and
characteristics that differentiate him from his
followers. Research of trait theories addressed the
following two questions: What traits distinguish
leaders from other people? What is the extent of
those differences?

22. Similar in some ways to “Great Man”
theories, trait theory assumes that people
inherit certain qualities and traits that make
them better suited to leadership. Trait
theories often identify particular personality
or behavioral characteristics shared by
leaders. But if particular traits are key
features of leadership, how do we explain
people who possess those qualities but are
not leaders? This question is one of the
difficulties in using trait theories to explain
leadership.

23. TRAIT THEORIES
 Based on great men you can examine
their personalities and behaviour to
develop traits of leaders
 Plausible BUT flawed
 Little correlation – in attempting to identify
and model behaviours

24. BEHAVIOURIST THEORY
 Emphasizes what leaders do rather than
their characteristics
 So we look at what they do and how they
behave
 Advocates- Blake and Mouton (creators
of the Management Grid) and Rennis
Likert

25. Humanistic Theories
Humanistic theories deal with the development of the
individual in effective and cohesive organizations.
Those holding this theoretical perspective assume that
human beings are by nature motivated beings, and
that organizations are by nature structured and
controlled. According to them, leadership is to modify
organizational constraints to provide freedom for
individuals in order to realize their full potential and
contribute to the organization.
Argyris (1957, 1962, 1694); Blake & Mouton (1964, 1965);
Hersey & Blanchard (1969, 1972); Likert (1961, 1967);
Maslow (1965); McGregor (1960, 1966)

26. For Kurt Lewin
 behaviourwas determined by totality of an individuals
situation. In his field theory, a field is defined as the
totality of coexisting facts which are conceived of as
mutually interdependent (Lewin 1951: 240).
 Individuals were seen to behave differently according
to the way in which tensions between perceptions of
the self and of the environment were worked through.
The whole psychological field, or lifespace, within
which people acted had to be viewed, in order to
understand behaviour. Within this individuals and
groups could be seen in topological terms (using map-
like representations).

27. Chris Argyris
 The ladder of inference is a
powerful tool for helping
people to recognise their
tendency to make claims
about the world that they
assume to be
true, and, therefore, expect
others to accept without
question...The pool of
information at the bottom of
the ladder represents all the
information that could be
relevant to this situation…

28.  The first rung of the ladder represents the way we select
from this pool. This is not a bad thing – it is simply
impossible to notice everything. What is important is to
recognise that you have been selective and that other
people will take different information from the pool...
The second rung represents the process of describing
what is happening…
The third and fourth rungs represent the way people
interpret and evaluate what they have noticed and
described...the context of the conversation and people‟s
prior assumptions are powerful influences on how people
interpret and evaluate what they notice…
The fifth rung represents how people seek consistency
between individual interpretations and experiences by
weaving them together into a coherent theory of
action…
The sixth rung shows how theories provide conclusions
about the situation and what to do about it…

29. Alvin Toffler
 TheThird Wave: The industrial society
brought huge companies and military
organizations that needed to track what
they had, what they were doing, and
what they were spending. Information
became abundant.

30. Rensis Likert
 The Linking Pin Model is an idea developed by
Rensis Likert in which an organization is
represented as a number of overlapping work
units in which members of one unit are leaders of
another. In this scheme, the supervisor/manager
has the dual task of maintaining unity and
creating a sense of belonging within the group he
or she supervises and of representing that group in
meetings with superior and parallel management
staff. These individuals are the linking pins within
the organization and so they become the focus of
leadership development activities.

31.  The managerial grid model (1964) is a
behavioral leadership model developed
by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton. This
model originally identified five different
leadership styles based on the concern
for people and the concern for
production. The optimal leadership style
in this model is based on Theory Y.

33. The model is represented as a grid with
concern for production as the [x-axis]] and
concern for people as the Y-axis; each axis
ranges from 1 (Low) to 9 (High).
 The indifferent (previously called
impoverished) style (1,1) : evade and elude.
 The accommodating (previously, country
club) style (1,9): yield and comply.
 The dictatorial (previously, produce or
perish) style (9,1): control and dominate.
 The status quo (previously, middle-of-the-
road) style (5,5): balance and compromise.

34.  The sound (previously, team style) (9,9):
contribute and commit.
 The opportunistic style: exploit and
manipulate.
 The paternalistic style: prescribe and
guide.

35. Behavioral ElementsGrid theory breaks
behavior down into seven key
elements:Element Description
 Initiative =Taking action, driving and supporting
 Inquiry =Questioning, researching and verifying
understanding
 Advocacy =Expressing convictions and championing
ideas
 Decision Making =Evaluating resources, choices and
consequences
 Conflict Resolution= Confronting and resolving
disagreements
 Resilience =Dealing with problems, setbacks and failures
 Critique =Delivering objective, candid feedback

36. Individual Character Theory

37.  Napoleon complex is an informal term
describing an alleged type of inferiority
complex which is said to affect some
people, especially men, who are short in
stature. The term is also used more
generally to describe people who are
driven by a perceived handicap to
overcompensate in other aspects of their
lives.

38. Situational theories propose that
leaders choose the best course
of action based upon
situational variable. Different
styles of leadership may be
more appropriate for certain
types of decision-making.

39. Situational Theories
 Bogardus (1918); Hersey & Blanchard
(1972); Hocking (1924); Person (1928); H.
Spencer
 Leadership is the product of situational
demands: Situational factors determine
who will emerge as a leader rather than a
person’s heritage. The emergence of a
great leader is the result of time, place
and circumstance.

40.  TheSituational Leadership method from Kenneth
Blanchard and Paul Hersey holds that managers
must use different leadership styles depending
on the situation. The model allows you to
analyze the needs of the situation you‟re in, and
then use the most appropriate leadership style.
Depending on employees‟ competences in
their task areas and commitment to their
tasks, your leadership style should vary from one
person to another. You may even lead the
same person one way sometimes, and another
way at other times

41. Leadership Behavior of the Leader
 ■S1 – Telling / Directing – High task focus, low relationship
focus – leaders define the roles and tasks of the
„follower‟, and supervise them closely. Decisions are made
by the leader and announced, so communication is largely
one-way. For people who lack competence but are
enthusiastic and committed. They need direction and
supervision to get them started.
 ■S2 – Selling / Coaching – High task focus, high relationship
focus – leaders still define roles and tasks, but seeks ideas
and suggestions from the follower. Decisions remain the
leader‟s prerogative, but communication is much more two-
way. For people who have some competence but lack
commitment. They need direction and supervision because
they are still relatively inexperienced. They also need support
and praise to build their self-esteem, and involvement in
decision-making to restore their commitment.

42.  ■S3 – Participating / Supporting – Low task focus, high
relationship focus – leaders pass day-to-day
decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the
follower. The leader facilitates and takes part in
decisions, but control is with the follower. For people
who have competence, but lack confidence or
motivation. They do not need much direction because
of their skills, but support is necessary to bolster their
confidence and motivation.
 ■S4 – Delegating – Low task focus, low relationship
focus – leaders are still involved in decisions and
problem-solving, but control is with the follower. The
follower decides when and how the leader will be
involved. For people who have both competence and
commitment. They are able and willing to work on a
project by themselves with little supervision or support.

43.  FredFiedler‟s situational contingency
theory holds that group effectiveness
depends on an appropriate match
between a leader‟s style (essentially a trait
measure) and the demands of the
situation. Fiedler considers situational
control the extent to which a leader can
determine what his or her group is going to
do to be the primary contingency factor in
determining the effectiveness of leader
behavior.

44.  The Vroom-Yetton contingency model is
a situational leadership theory of
industrial and organizational psychology
developed by Victor Vroom, in
collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973)
and later with Arthur Jago (1988). The
situational theory argues the best style of
leadership is contingent to the situation.
This model suggests the selection of a
leadership style for group decision
making.

45. Emotional Intelligence Theory
 the EQ principles provide a new way to
understand and assess people's
behaviours, management
styles, attitudes, interpersonal skills, and
potential. Emotional Intelligence is an
important consideration in human
resources planning, job
profiling, recruitment interviewing and
selection, management
development, customer relations and
customer service, and more.

46.  The EQ concept argues that IQ, or conventional
intelligence, is too narrow; that there are wider
areas of Emotional Intelligence that dictate and
enable how successful we are. Success requires
more than IQ (Intelligence Quotient), which has
tended to be the traditional measure of
intelligence, ignoring eseential behavioural and
character elements. We've all met people who
are academically brilliant and yet are socially
and inter-personally inept. And we know that
despite possessing a high IQ rating, success does
not automatically follow.

47. Howard Gardner
 He proposed eight multiple intelligences for
children and adults. All adults and children have
the potential to strengthen all intelligences but
each of us has dominant intelligences that we
excel in. Many schools main focus is on linguistic
and logical intelligences. We are slowly
incorporating more of the intelligences and placing
more value on all of the intelligences. Each student
is unique and not all will excel in linguistic and
logical but with a school system that values all
intelligences we will nurture all students‟ gifts.

48. Multiple Intelligences:
Howard Gardner
 •Linguistic- words and language
 •Logical-Mathematical - logic and
numbers
 •Musical - music, rhythm and sound
 •Bodily-Kinaesthetic - body movement
and control
 •Spatial-Visual - images and space
 •Interpersonal - other people's feelings
 •Intrapersonal - self awareness

49. Management theories (also known as
“Transactional theories”) focus on the
role of supervision, organization, and
group performance. These theories base
leadership on a system of reward and
punishment. Managerial theories are
often used in business; when employees
are successful, they are rewarded; when
they fail, they are reprimanded or
punished.

50. Transactional Leadership
 • Emphasizes getting
things done within the
umbrella of the status
quo
 • In opposition to
transformational
leadership
 • “By the book"
approach - the person
works within the rules
 Commonly seen in
large, bureaucratic
organizations

51. Relationship theories (also known as
“Transformational theories”) focus upon the
connections formed between leaders and
followers. These leaders motivate and inspire
people by helping group members see the
importance and higher good of the task.
Transformational leaders are focused on the
performance of group members, but also
want each person to fulfill his or her
potential. These leaders often have high
ethical and moral standards.

52. The Transformational
Leadership
 • Make change happen
in:
 • Self,
 • Others,
 • Groups, and
 • Organizations
 • Charisma a special
leadership style
commonly associated
with transformational
leadership; extremely
powerful, extremely hard
to teach

53. Servant Leadership
 A practical philosophy
focusing on people who
choose to serve first and
then lead as a way of
expanding service
 Servant leaders are "servants
first" with the object of
making sure that other
people's highest priority
needs are being served
 Leaders put the needs of
their followers first; these
leaders rare in business

54. Quantum or Chaos Theory
 systems sometimes reside in chaos, generating
energy but without any predictability or
direction.
 Applying chaos theory to organizational
behavior allows theorists to take a step back
from the management of day-to-day activities
and see how organizations function as unified
systems. An organization is a classic example
of a nonlinear system (i.e., a system in which
minor events have the potential to set off
grave consequences or chain reactions, and
major changes may have little or no effect on
the system whatsoever).