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The Nature of Financial
Intermediation
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Economics of Financial
Intermediation
 In a world of perfect financial markets
there would be no need for financial
intermediaries (middlemen) in the
process of lending and/or borrowing
 Costless transactions
 Securities can be purchased in any
denomination
 Perfect information about the quality of
financial instruments
www.StudsPlanet.com
Reasons for Financial
Intermediation
 Transaction costs
 Cost of bringing lender/borrower together
 Reduced when financial intermediation is used
 Relevant to smaller lenders/borrowers
 Portfolio Diversification
 Spread investments over larger number of securities and
reduce risk exposure
 Option not available to small investors with limited funds
 Mutual Funds—pooling of funds from many investors and
purchase a portfolio of many different securities
www.StudsPlanet.com
Reasons for Financial
Intermediation
 Gathering of Information
 Intermediaries are efficient at obtaining
information, evaluating credit risks, and are
specialists in production of information
 Asymmetric Information
 Adverse Selection
 Moral Hazard
www.StudsPlanet.com
Asymmetric Information
 Buyers/sellers not equally informed about
product
 Can be difficult to determine credit worthiness,
mainly for consumers and small businesses
 Borrower knows more than lender about
borrower’s future performance
 Borrowers may understate risk
 Asymmetric information is much less of a
problem for large businesses—more publicly
available information
www.StudsPlanet.com
Adverse Selection
 Related to information about a business before a
bank makes a loan
 Small businesses tend to represent themselves as
high quality
 Banks know some are good and some are
bad, how to decide
 Charge too high an interest, good credit companies look
elsewhere—leaves just bad credit risk companies
 Charge too low interest, have more losses to bad companies
than profits on good companies
 Market failure—Banker may decide not to lend money to
any small businesses
www.StudsPlanet.com
Moral Hazard
 Occurs after the loan is made
 Taking risks works to owners
advantage, prompting owners to make
riskier decisions than normal
 Owner may “hit the jackpot”, however,
bank is not better off
 From owner’s perspective, a moderate loss
is same as huge loss—limited liability
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Evolution of Financial
Intermediaries in the US
 The institutions are very dynamic and
have changed significantly over the
years
 The relative importance of different types of
institutions and has changed from 1952 to
2002
 Winners—Pension funds and mutual fund
 Losers—Depository institutions (except credit
unions) and life insurance companies
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Evolution of Financial
Intermediaries in the U.S.
 Changes in relative importance caused by
 Changes in regulations
 Key financial and technological innovations
www.StudsPlanet.com
1950s and Early 1960s
 Stable interest rates
 Fed imposed ceilings on deposit rates
 Little competition for short-term funds from
small savers
 Many present day competitors had not
been developed
 Therefore, large supply of cheap
money
www.StudsPlanet.com
Mid 1960s
 Growing economy meant increased demand
for loans
 Percentages of bank loans to total assets
jumped from 45% in 1960 to nearly 60% in
1980
 Challenge for banks was to find enough
deposits to satisfy loan demand
 Interest rates became increasingly unstable
 However, depository institutions still fell under
protection of Regulation Q
www.StudsPlanet.com
Regulation Q
 Glass-Steagall Banking Act of 1933.
 Prohibited the payment of interest on
demand deposits.
 Ceiling on the maximum rate
commercial banks can pay on time
deposits.
 Intent was to promote stability by
removing competition.
www.StudsPlanet.com
Consequences of Regulation
Q
 Rising short-term interest rates meant depository
institutions could not match rates earned in money
market instruments such as T-bills and commercial
paper
 Financial disintermediation—Wealthy investors
and corporations took money from depository
institutions and placed in money market instruments
 However, option was not opened to small investor—
money market instruments were not sold in small
denominations
www.StudsPlanet.com
Bank Reaction to Regulation
Q
 In 1961 banks were permitted to offer
negotiable certificates of deposit (CDs)
in denominations of $100,000 not
subject to Regulation Q
 In mid-1960s short-term rates became
more volatile and wealthy investors
switched from savings accounts to large
CD’s
www.StudsPlanet.com
Money Market Mutual Fund
 In 1971 Money Market mutual Funds were
developed and were a main cause in the
repeal of Regulation Q
 Small investors pooled their funds to buy a
diversified portfolio of money market instruments
 Some mutual funds offered limited checking
withdrawals
 Small investors now had access to money market
interest rates in excess permitted by Regulation Q
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Savings and Loan (S&L) Crisis
 As interest rates rose in late 1970s,
small investors moved funds out of
banks and thrifts
 Beginning of disaster for S&Ls since
they were dependent on small savers
for their funds
www.StudsPlanet.com
The S&L Crisis
 Depository Institutions Deregulation and
Monetary Control Act of 1980 and the
Garn-St. Germain Depository
Institutions Act of 1982
 Dismantled Regulation Q
 Permitted S&Ls (as well as other
depository institutions) to compete for
funds as money market rates soared
www.StudsPlanet.com
Change in the Financial
Makeup of S&Ls
 Most of their assets (fixed-rate residential
mortgages, 30 year) yielded very low returns
 Interest paid on short-term money (competing
with mutual funds) was generally double the
rate of return on mortgages
 Market value of mortgages held by S&Ls fell
as interest rates rose making the value of
assets less than value of liabilities
www.StudsPlanet.com
The S&L Crisis
 Since financial statements are based on historical costs, extent
of asset value loss was not recognized unless mortgage was
sold
 Under the Garn-ST. Germain Act, S&Ls were permitted to invest
in higher yielding areas in which they had little expertise
(specifically junk bonds and oil loans)
 Investors were not concerned because their deposits were
insured by Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation
(FSLIC)
 Result was an approximate $150 billion bail-out—paid for by
taxpayers
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Rise of Commercial
Paper
 Financial disintermediation created
situation where corporations issued
large amounts of commercial paper
(short-term bonds) to investors moving
funds away from banks
 This growth paralleled the growth in the
money market mutual funds
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Rise of Commercial
Paper
 Banks lost their largest and highest
quality borrowers to commercial paper
market
 To compensate for this loss of quality
loans, banks started making loans to
less creditworthy customers and lesser
developed countries (LDC’s)
 As a result, bank loan portfolios
became riskier in the end of 1980s
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Evolution of Financial
Intermediaries
 The increase in commercial paper was aided
by technological innovations
 Computers and communication technology
permitted transactions at very low costs
 Complicated modeling permitted financial
institutions to more accurately evaluate borrowers
—addressed the asymmetric problem
 Permitted banks to more effectively monitor
inventory and accounts receivable used as
collateral for loans
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Institutionalization of
Financial Markets
 Institutionalization—more and more funds
now flow indirectly into financial markets
through financial intermediaries rather than
directly from savers
 These “institutional investors” have become
more important in financial markets relative to
individual investors
 Easier for companies to distribute newly
issued securities via their investment bankers
www.StudsPlanet.com
Reason for Growth of
Institutionalization
 Growth of pension funds and mutual funds
 Tax laws encourage additional pensions and
benefits rather than increased wages
 Legislation created a number of new
alternatives to the traditional employer-
sponsored defined benefits plan, primarily the
defined contribution plan
 IRAs
 403(b) and 401(k) plans
 Growth of mutual funds resulting from the
alternative pension plans—Mutual fund families
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Transformation of
Traditional Banking
 During 1970s & 80s banks extended
loans to riskier borrowers
 Especially vulnerable to international
debt crisis during 1980s
 Increased competition from other
financial institutions
 Rise in the number of bank failures
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Transformation of
Traditional Banking
 Although banks’ share of the market has
declined, bank assets continue to increase
 New innovation activities of banks are not
reflected on balance sheet
 Trading in interest rates and currency swaps
 Selling credit derivatives
 Issuing credit guarantees
www.StudsPlanet.com
The Transformation of
Traditional Banking
 Banks still have a strong comparative
advantage in lending to individuals and small
businesses
 Banks offer wide menu of services
 Develop comprehensive relationships—easier to
monitor borrowers and address problems
 In 1999 the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act
repealed the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933
permitting the merging of banks with many
other types of financial institutions.
www.StudsPlanet.com
Financial Intermediaries: Assets,
Liabilities, and Management
 Unlike a manufacturing company with real
assets, banks have only financial assets
 Therefore, banks have financial claims on
both sides of the balance sheet
 Credit Risks
 Interest Rate Risks
www.StudsPlanet.com
Credit Risks
 Banks tend to hold assets to maturity
and expect a certain cash flow
 Do not want borrowers to default on
loans
 Need to monitor borrowers continuously
 Charge quality customers lower interest
rate on loans
 Detect possible default problems
www.StudsPlanet.com
Interest Rate Risks
 Banks are vulnerable to change in
interest rates
 Want a positive spread between interest
earned on assets and cost of money
(liabilities)
 Attempt to maintain an equal balance
between maturities of assets and liabilities
 Adjustable rate on loans, mortgages,
etc. minimizes interest rate risks
www.StudsPlanet.com
Balance Sheets of Depository
Institutions
 All have deposits on the right-hand side
of balance sheet
 Investments in assets tend to be short
term in maturity
 Do face credit risk because they invest
heavily in nontraded private loans
www.StudsPlanet.com
Balance Sheets of Non-
depository Financial
Intermediaries
 Some experience credit risk associated with
nontraded financial claims
 Asset maturities reflect the maturity of liabilities
 Insurance and pension funds have long-term policies
and annuities—invest in long-term instruments
 Consumer and commercial finance companies have
assets in short-term nontraded loans—raise funds by
issuing short-term debt
www.StudsPlanet.com

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Financial inter

  • 1. The Nature of Financial Intermediation www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 2. The Economics of Financial Intermediation  In a world of perfect financial markets there would be no need for financial intermediaries (middlemen) in the process of lending and/or borrowing  Costless transactions  Securities can be purchased in any denomination  Perfect information about the quality of financial instruments www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 3. Reasons for Financial Intermediation  Transaction costs  Cost of bringing lender/borrower together  Reduced when financial intermediation is used  Relevant to smaller lenders/borrowers  Portfolio Diversification  Spread investments over larger number of securities and reduce risk exposure  Option not available to small investors with limited funds  Mutual Funds—pooling of funds from many investors and purchase a portfolio of many different securities www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 4. Reasons for Financial Intermediation  Gathering of Information  Intermediaries are efficient at obtaining information, evaluating credit risks, and are specialists in production of information  Asymmetric Information  Adverse Selection  Moral Hazard www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 5. Asymmetric Information  Buyers/sellers not equally informed about product  Can be difficult to determine credit worthiness, mainly for consumers and small businesses  Borrower knows more than lender about borrower’s future performance  Borrowers may understate risk  Asymmetric information is much less of a problem for large businesses—more publicly available information www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 6. Adverse Selection  Related to information about a business before a bank makes a loan  Small businesses tend to represent themselves as high quality  Banks know some are good and some are bad, how to decide  Charge too high an interest, good credit companies look elsewhere—leaves just bad credit risk companies  Charge too low interest, have more losses to bad companies than profits on good companies  Market failure—Banker may decide not to lend money to any small businesses www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 7. Moral Hazard  Occurs after the loan is made  Taking risks works to owners advantage, prompting owners to make riskier decisions than normal  Owner may “hit the jackpot”, however, bank is not better off  From owner’s perspective, a moderate loss is same as huge loss—limited liability www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 8. The Evolution of Financial Intermediaries in the US  The institutions are very dynamic and have changed significantly over the years  The relative importance of different types of institutions and has changed from 1952 to 2002  Winners—Pension funds and mutual fund  Losers—Depository institutions (except credit unions) and life insurance companies www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 9. The Evolution of Financial Intermediaries in the U.S.  Changes in relative importance caused by  Changes in regulations  Key financial and technological innovations www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 10. 1950s and Early 1960s  Stable interest rates  Fed imposed ceilings on deposit rates  Little competition for short-term funds from small savers  Many present day competitors had not been developed  Therefore, large supply of cheap money www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 11. Mid 1960s  Growing economy meant increased demand for loans  Percentages of bank loans to total assets jumped from 45% in 1960 to nearly 60% in 1980  Challenge for banks was to find enough deposits to satisfy loan demand  Interest rates became increasingly unstable  However, depository institutions still fell under protection of Regulation Q www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 12. Regulation Q  Glass-Steagall Banking Act of 1933.  Prohibited the payment of interest on demand deposits.  Ceiling on the maximum rate commercial banks can pay on time deposits.  Intent was to promote stability by removing competition. www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 13. Consequences of Regulation Q  Rising short-term interest rates meant depository institutions could not match rates earned in money market instruments such as T-bills and commercial paper  Financial disintermediation—Wealthy investors and corporations took money from depository institutions and placed in money market instruments  However, option was not opened to small investor— money market instruments were not sold in small denominations www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 14. Bank Reaction to Regulation Q  In 1961 banks were permitted to offer negotiable certificates of deposit (CDs) in denominations of $100,000 not subject to Regulation Q  In mid-1960s short-term rates became more volatile and wealthy investors switched from savings accounts to large CD’s www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 15. Money Market Mutual Fund  In 1971 Money Market mutual Funds were developed and were a main cause in the repeal of Regulation Q  Small investors pooled their funds to buy a diversified portfolio of money market instruments  Some mutual funds offered limited checking withdrawals  Small investors now had access to money market interest rates in excess permitted by Regulation Q www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 16. The Savings and Loan (S&L) Crisis  As interest rates rose in late 1970s, small investors moved funds out of banks and thrifts  Beginning of disaster for S&Ls since they were dependent on small savers for their funds www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 17. The S&L Crisis  Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980 and the Garn-St. Germain Depository Institutions Act of 1982  Dismantled Regulation Q  Permitted S&Ls (as well as other depository institutions) to compete for funds as money market rates soared www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 18. Change in the Financial Makeup of S&Ls  Most of their assets (fixed-rate residential mortgages, 30 year) yielded very low returns  Interest paid on short-term money (competing with mutual funds) was generally double the rate of return on mortgages  Market value of mortgages held by S&Ls fell as interest rates rose making the value of assets less than value of liabilities www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 19. The S&L Crisis  Since financial statements are based on historical costs, extent of asset value loss was not recognized unless mortgage was sold  Under the Garn-ST. Germain Act, S&Ls were permitted to invest in higher yielding areas in which they had little expertise (specifically junk bonds and oil loans)  Investors were not concerned because their deposits were insured by Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC)  Result was an approximate $150 billion bail-out—paid for by taxpayers www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 20. The Rise of Commercial Paper  Financial disintermediation created situation where corporations issued large amounts of commercial paper (short-term bonds) to investors moving funds away from banks  This growth paralleled the growth in the money market mutual funds www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 21. The Rise of Commercial Paper  Banks lost their largest and highest quality borrowers to commercial paper market  To compensate for this loss of quality loans, banks started making loans to less creditworthy customers and lesser developed countries (LDC’s)  As a result, bank loan portfolios became riskier in the end of 1980s www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 22. The Evolution of Financial Intermediaries  The increase in commercial paper was aided by technological innovations  Computers and communication technology permitted transactions at very low costs  Complicated modeling permitted financial institutions to more accurately evaluate borrowers —addressed the asymmetric problem  Permitted banks to more effectively monitor inventory and accounts receivable used as collateral for loans www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 23. The Institutionalization of Financial Markets  Institutionalization—more and more funds now flow indirectly into financial markets through financial intermediaries rather than directly from savers  These “institutional investors” have become more important in financial markets relative to individual investors  Easier for companies to distribute newly issued securities via their investment bankers www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 24. Reason for Growth of Institutionalization  Growth of pension funds and mutual funds  Tax laws encourage additional pensions and benefits rather than increased wages  Legislation created a number of new alternatives to the traditional employer- sponsored defined benefits plan, primarily the defined contribution plan  IRAs  403(b) and 401(k) plans  Growth of mutual funds resulting from the alternative pension plans—Mutual fund families www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 25. The Transformation of Traditional Banking  During 1970s & 80s banks extended loans to riskier borrowers  Especially vulnerable to international debt crisis during 1980s  Increased competition from other financial institutions  Rise in the number of bank failures www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 26. The Transformation of Traditional Banking  Although banks’ share of the market has declined, bank assets continue to increase  New innovation activities of banks are not reflected on balance sheet  Trading in interest rates and currency swaps  Selling credit derivatives  Issuing credit guarantees www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 27. The Transformation of Traditional Banking  Banks still have a strong comparative advantage in lending to individuals and small businesses  Banks offer wide menu of services  Develop comprehensive relationships—easier to monitor borrowers and address problems  In 1999 the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act repealed the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 permitting the merging of banks with many other types of financial institutions. www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 28. Financial Intermediaries: Assets, Liabilities, and Management  Unlike a manufacturing company with real assets, banks have only financial assets  Therefore, banks have financial claims on both sides of the balance sheet  Credit Risks  Interest Rate Risks www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 29. Credit Risks  Banks tend to hold assets to maturity and expect a certain cash flow  Do not want borrowers to default on loans  Need to monitor borrowers continuously  Charge quality customers lower interest rate on loans  Detect possible default problems www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 30. Interest Rate Risks  Banks are vulnerable to change in interest rates  Want a positive spread between interest earned on assets and cost of money (liabilities)  Attempt to maintain an equal balance between maturities of assets and liabilities  Adjustable rate on loans, mortgages, etc. minimizes interest rate risks www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 31. Balance Sheets of Depository Institutions  All have deposits on the right-hand side of balance sheet  Investments in assets tend to be short term in maturity  Do face credit risk because they invest heavily in nontraded private loans www.StudsPlanet.com
  • 32. Balance Sheets of Non- depository Financial Intermediaries  Some experience credit risk associated with nontraded financial claims  Asset maturities reflect the maturity of liabilities  Insurance and pension funds have long-term policies and annuities—invest in long-term instruments  Consumer and commercial finance companies have assets in short-term nontraded loans—raise funds by issuing short-term debt www.StudsPlanet.com

Notes de l'éditeur

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