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Subject: Human Resource Management
Topic: Organisation , Training & Erg Process

2. 1. Describe how the model of training processes
serves as a problem-solving tool. Include a brief
explanation of each phase (e.g., needs analysis,
design, development, implementation, and
evaluation).
Problem solving is a systematic process of reaching a
solution or solutions to a concern or difficulty. The
chosen process of problem solving is often
determined by the degree of complexity of the
concern presented. When the concern is relatively
simple, an informal process occurs. However, as the
concern grows in complexity, a more formalized,
systematic process is followed ( Hagemeyer,
Gershenson and Johnson, 2006)
The most commonly used model of training process
has following stages:
1. Needs analysis: While designing training
programs, the process includes identifying and
defining the problem. This is the first step of
problem-solving. Ensure recognition of real problem

3. and not just symptom. Thus trainer needs to decide
the right content of training.
2. Designing training program and developing
content: included the stage of identifying alternatives,
evaluating and choosing the best one of decision
making process. The development of content is also
based on evaluation of various methods of training
and choosing the right one to match the target
audiences. The content and method of training helps
individuals take quick decisions as it exposes them to
various common phase issues.
4. Implementing: the training program that has been
designed is futile till it is effectively implemented.
Training provides a base to individuals to identify the
various tactics of implementing decisions.
5. Evaluation: The training program gives an
exposure to individuals to identify the possible
methods and areas where effective decision making
can be measured and rectified.
Training supports critical thinking. The meticulous
thought about the problem’s real constraints can save
a lot of time. By identifying a problem’s true
constraints, one can learn a lot about what the
solution most look like (Nalebuff and Ayres, 2003).

4. 2. Should an organization’s strategies be reactive,
proactive, or both? Support your answer.
Strategic decision making is heavily emphasized in
both business policy and organizational theory. This
delineates the activities by which organizational
leaders establish the social or economic mission of
the organization, define domains of action and
determine how it will navigate or compete within
chosen domain (Bourgeois, 1980). Both business
policy and organizational theory have focused on this
through different perspectives. Business policy’s
approach has been to view management as a
proactive or opportunistic agent and has centered
mush of its research on strategy variable (Hatten,
Schendel and Cooper, 1978). Organizational theory
on the other hand takes a more reactive stance by
viewing the environment as a deterministic force to
which organizations respond (Anderson and Paine,
1975).
Attempts to synthesize the frameworks developed by
Miles and Snow (1978) and Porter (1980) have also
emerged. Parnell and Carraher (2002) proposed a
categorization along two dimensions: consistency and
proactive ness. Consistent firms would pursue the
defender (Miles and Snow, 1978) and low cost
(Porter, 1980) strategies. Proactive firms would
choose a prospector or differentiation strategy.

5. Reactors and firms stuck in the middle both seem to
lack clear strategic direction. Thus an integration of
both proactive and reactive research is required and it
needs to be identified where and in what situation
which should be applied.
3. Explain social learning theory.
People learn through observing others’ behavior,
attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. Most
human behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea
of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide
for action (Bandura, 1977). Social learning theory
emphasizes the environmental rather than the
personal determinants of behavior (Chell, 1985; Chell
et al., 1991). One way in which learning can occur is
vicariously, through the observation of behaviors in
others, referred to as models (Bandura, 1977).
Entrepreneurial role models may appear in the guise
of family members, employers, teachers, or anyone
whom the individual has had the opportunity to
observe (Scherer et al., 1989). Chell (1985) argues
that the entrepreneur develops expectancies and
values from social experiences. According to social

6. learning theory, risk-- taking behaviors can be
viewed as learned behavior often transmitted by
parents and other influential individuals, and are
shaped by the socio-cultural environment. Trait
theorists would also recognize that the environment is
a determiner of behavior as well as traits:
psychologists are not 'hard determinists'; they are
'soft determinists' (Low and MacMillan, 1988).
Social learning theory explains human behavior in
terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
Necessary conditions for effective modeling:
1. Attention — various factors increase or decrease
the amount of attention paid. Includes
distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence,
complexity, functional value. One’s
characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal
level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect
attention.
2. Retention — remembering what you paid
attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental
images, cognitive organization, symbolic
rehearsal, motor rehearsal
3. Reproduction — reproducing the image.
Including physical capabilities, and self-
observation of reproduction.

7. 4. Motivation — having a good reason to imitate.
Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional
behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives)
and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced
model)
4. Explain ERG theory.
The ERG theory, a model of human motivation
developed 1969 by Clayton Alderfer, extended and
simplified Maslow's Hierarchy using a relatively
smaller set of needs. The ERG theory attempts to
answer the question, "what motivates a person to
act?" and assumes that all human activities are
motivated by need. The ERG theory consolidated
Maslow's five need categories into three levels of
need; Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. Each
category is described as follows.
1. Existence Needs: include all material and
physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air, clothing,
safety, physical love and affection).
2. Relatedness Needs: encompass relationships with
significant others (e.g., to be recognized and feel
secure as part of a group or family).

8. 3. Growth Needs: impel a person to make creative or
productive effects on himself and the environment
(e.g., to progress toward one's ideal self).
The concepts of existence, relatedness, and growth
needs are separate and distinct categories. The
concept of prioritizing needs is based on a continuum
in terms of their concreteness. Existence needs are
the most concrete, and easiest to verify. Relatedness
needs are less concrete than existence needs, which
depend on a relationship between two or more
people. Finally, growth needs are the least concrete in
that their specific objectives depend on the
uniqueness of each person.
Three relationships among different categories,
satisfaction-progression, frustration-regression, and
satisfaction-strengthening, are identified in ERG
theory. Satisfaction-progression stands for moving up
to higher-level needs based on satisfied needs.
Frustration-regression is when a person moves
backward from current unsatisfied needs to lower-
level needs. The idea of satisfactions-strengthening
represents strengthening a current level of satisfied
needs iteratively.
Satisfaction-progression plays an important part in
Maslow's original concept of a need hierarchy (but
not in the ERG theory). In ERG theory, the

9. movement upward from relatedness satisfaction to
growth desires does not presume satisfaction of
existence needs. However, the movement from
existence satisfaction to relatedness desires is
necessary according to Maslow's theory (i.e.,
individuals move up the hierarchy as a result of
satisfying lower order needs.
Frustration-regression identifies one's motivation in
explaining fundamental desires. Frustration-
regression suggests that an already satisfied need can
become active when a higher need cannot be
satisfied. Thus, if a person is continually frustrated in
his/her attempts to satisfy growth, relatedness needs
can resurface as key motivators.
Satisfaction-strengthening indicates that an already
satisfied need can maintain satisfaction or strengthen
lower level needs iteratively when it fails to gratify
high-level needs (Chang and Yuan,2008).
5. Discuss he proactive approach and the reactive
approach to TNA (training needs analysis).
The focus of training needs analysis is performance.
The starting point for the process, as recommended
by numerous textbook models, is the identification of
training needs as they relate to individual or

10. organizational performance. The focus is very much
on job behavior and task analysis, with the gathering
of quantitative data from field observations,
structured questionnaires and formal interviews being
the major emphasis. Naturally this can be very
expensive and time-consuming and the original needs
may well have changed by the time the data has been
analyzed and the subsequent training programs
designed and delivered. However, such a
comprehensive approach is rare: most organizations
follow their own less systematic procedures based on
tradition, office politics and various internal and
external pressures. A reactive, problem-based
approach to needs analysis and HRD planning is no
longer sufficient. Adult educationalist Stephen
Brookfield (1986) warns of a further shortcoming of
traditional training models. Their insistence that
training must be outcome-oriented and derived from
predetermined behavioral objectives neglects the
possibility of unplanned learning occurring and the
important roles played by insight, reflection and
discovery on the part of adult learners. Since these
are the very sorts of learning skills needed for future
work it could be argued that rigid behavioral
objectives are antipathetic to current notions of
competence.

11. In the leaner, more results-oriented organizations of
today, training must be a deliberate organizational
strategy and not just a reaction to a problem or a
political decision based on managerial whim. This
means the emphasis of needs analysis will have
shifted from looking for the cause of a problem to
assisting people in their work and careers and to
helping them achieve greater future proficiency and
satisfaction. This certainly involves problem
correction and the identification of skills and
knowledge currently lacking, but the emphasis is on
future efficiency, not past deficiencies. It requires an
attitudinal shift on the part of trainers and managers
to see training as much more than basic skill building
(Anderson, 1994).
6. Compare reliability and validity.
Reliability seeks to produce consistent, predictable
outcomes by utilizing a system that is restricted to the
use of objective data - for instance, predicting a
customer’s future purchase by using data collected in
Customer Information System. To produce highest
reliability, a system must stick to quantitative,
objective data and use of the data that does not
involve judgment, because blending subjective and
judgment leads to inconsistency. Validity, on the

12. other hand, seeks to produce outcomes that meet the
desired objective, even if the system employed can’t
produce a consistent, predictable outcome.
Validity and reliability anchor down opposite ends of
the spectrum that defines how systems are conceived
and solutions are framed. A perfectly reliable system
is one that produces an identical output each time if
the same inputs are introduced to the system
repeatedly. A perfectly valid system is one that
produces a result that is shown, through the passage
of time, to have been correct. In most situations,
validity and reliability are traded off for one another,
to achieve high validity, a system must take into
account a high degree of complexity featuring many
variables and judgmental measurement of variables;
and to achieve high reliability, the number of
variables has to be reduced and the measurement of
the variables standardized. Tests like Stanford –Binet
and Wechsler Intelligence Scale, Emotional
Intelligence by Goleman all suggest the same
phenomenon (Martin, 2005).

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