hotel atmospheric elemen

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IJCHM
18,7 The effects of atmospheric
elements on customer impression:
the case of hotel lobbies
534
Cary C. Countryman
School of Business, Brigham Young University, Laie, Hawaii, USA, and
SooCheong Jang
Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to examine the atmospheric elements of color, lighting,
layout, style, and furnishings that make up the physical environment of a hotel lobby. Previous
research indicates that these atmospheric elements impact overall guest perceptions and impressions.
Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected using a scenario approach along with
photographs of the hotel lobby. Structural equation modeling was used to analysis the data to
determine which of the atmospheric elements were more influential in the overall impression of the
hotel lobby.
Findings – Three of the atmospheric elements (color, lighting, and style) were found to be
significantly related to the overall impression of a hotel lobby. Color was the most significant of these
three atmospheric elements.
Research limitations/implications – The focus of this research was the hotel lobby. While this
physical environment is fairly important in helping to establish first impressions, there are other
physical spaces within a hotel that have a large influence on guest perceptions and impressions. Hotel
practitioners need to understand the importance of the atmospheric elements and their influence on
overall guest perceptions and impressions.
Originality/value – This research examines atmospherics from a hospitality and lodging
perspective. The topic has received limited research interest in the past but it is becoming
recognized as an important consideration in future hotel design and construction. This research helps
in establishing a foundation on which future research can be built.
Keywords Perception, Hotels, Colour, Consumer behaviour, Lighting systems, Design
Paper type Research paper

Psychologists have determined that the physical environment has an effect on human
behavior and this branch of psychology has become known as environmental
psychology. Using the premise of environmental psychology, Kotler (1973) determined
that if the physical environment had an effect on human behavior, it would also
influence the behavior of individuals in consumer settings such as retail stores. Bitner
(1992) took the concept of atmospherics a step further by developing a framework that
addresses the effects of the physical environment on consumers in service settings. To
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality distinguish this framework from that of atmospherics, Bitner (1992) used the term
Management servicescrape to describe the physical environment in which services take place.
Vol. 18 No. 7, 2006
pp. 534-545 There are many servicescapes that exist within a hotel. Among them, a hotel lobby
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0959-6119
could be considered one of the most important servicescape because of its impact in
DOI 10.1108/09596110610702968 forming many of the first impressions by guests. It is usually easier to meet or exceed

customer expectations when the first impressions have been positive (Knutson, 1988). The effects of
Those impressions or attitudes that are formed based on a physical space help create a atmospheric
context for the services that will follow.
According to Dube and Renaghan (2000), the physical property of a hotel which elements
includes the hotel lobby and other public spaces is very influential in driving the hotel
purchase decision. They claimed that the physical property is one of the top attributes
considered in the hotel purchase decision among travelers and it creates value for the 535
guests during their stay. In light of the importance of the physical property of a hotel
and in conjunction with the concept of servicescapes, it is important that hotels pay
closer attention to the physical settings.
Much of the research on atmospherics, and even more so with servicescapes, is still
very conceptual. Where research has been done, it has often focused on just one of the
elements that makes up the physical environment. Few models exist that attempt to
measure the combined impact of these elements in the creation of the overall
impression. The objective of this research is to fill that research gap by validating the
importance of atmospheric or servicescape elements in hotel environments. More
specifically, this research attempts to identify which elements of physical environment
significantly influence a customer’s impression on hotel lobby.

Literature review
Environmental psychology, atmospherics, and servicescapes
In an effort to define environmental psychology, Mehrabian and Russell (1974) described
it as “the direct impact of physical stimuli on human emotions and the effect of physical
stimuli on a variety of behaviors, such as work performance or social interaction”. Their
conceptual framework is based on the idea that the physical environment creates an
emotional response, which in turn elicits either approach or avoidance behavior in
regards to the physical environment. Mehrabian and Russell (1974) also stressed the
importance and the need for describing or defining the physical environment by
identifying those elements or dimensions that make up the physical environment.
Based on the early research in environmental psychology, Kotler took a narrower
perspective by focusing on consumer behavior and the effects that the physical
environment has on it. In addressing this, Kotler (1973) pointed out that the physical
environment in which a product is purchased is an important part of the total
consumption package. The term atmospherics was also introduced to describe this new
focus of research. Kotler (1973) went on further to suggest that there are certain
settings where the physical environmental will have a greater influence on consumer
behavior and purchase decisions. These settings are characterized by:
.
an environment in which a product/service is purchased or consumed and the
seller has control of the design options;
.
the number of competitive outlets has increased;
.
product and/or price differences are small; and
.
the product/service entries are aimed at distinct social classes or life style buyer
groups.

This describes the present state of the hotel industry fairly well.

IJCHM Bitner (1992) developed atmospherics further by creating a conceptual framework
18,7 for service settings and began using the term servicescapes to describe the physical
environment in which services occur. This conceptual framework is comprised of the
three environmental dimensions that combine to form the perceived servicescape:
(1) ambient conditions;
(2) space/function; and
536
(3) signs, symbols, and artifacts.

In addition to the conceptual framework, a number of propositions were made based on
the conceptual framework (Bitner, 1992). Among them, there are three that are of
particular interest. First, customers perceive environments holistically with the three
dimensions affecting overall perception independently and/or through interaction with
the other dimensions. Second, positive cognitions of the perceived servicescape can
lead to positive beliefs and attributions being associated with the organization, its
people, and its products. Third, the physical environment serves as a mnemonic or a
recognizable characteristic in helping customer differentiate among firms.
Moving beyond the conceptual models, Wakefield and Blodgett (1994) empirically
tested the concept of servicescapes in a leisure service setting by having research
participants view a videotape of a servicescape. Those research participants viewing
the servicescape of perceived high quality reported a greater excitement level, which
lead to greater satisfaction.
In summary, there is a strong conceptual framework for atmospherics or
servicescapes based on the foundation of environmental psychology. However, the
research to empirically test these conceptual theories in the hotel industry has been
limited. While there has been research done on some of the individual atmospheric or
servicesapce elements in retail and leisure settings (Baker et al., 1994; Bellizzi and Hite,
1992; Sharma and Stafford, 2000; Turley and Milliman, 2000; Wakefield and Blodgett,
1994, 1996, 1999), there is a need to test them as part of an overall model to identify
those elements that make up a physical environment of a hotel property.

Atmospheric/servicescape elements and hypotheses
The following is a brief overview of those atmospheric or servicescape elements that
are common to service settings and were included in this research to test their
influences on hotel lobby design.
Style. Siguaw and Enz (1999), after examining some of the best practices in the hotel
industry, indicated that the architectural style of a hotel did have an impact on the
profitability and success of the hotel. They believed that hotels with unique
architectural approaches and designs were able to increase the average daily rate
(ADR) and increase occupancy. Those hotels that had more of a “home-like” or
residential feel to them, had a strong theme, or incorporated more of the natural
landscape surrounding the hotel, were found to be more successful than other hotels
(Siguaw and Enz, 1999). Some people feel that the success of “boutique” hotels is due in
part to their unique architectural and interior designs (Cassedy, 1993; Templin, 1999).
From these studies, it could be presumed that customers perceive the uniqueness of a
hotel depending upon the style of the hotel. Thus, it is hypothesized that:
H1. Style has a significant impact on customers’ impression of the hotel lobby.

Layout. In regards to layout, one of the most common errors noticed in the design of The effects of
a hotel lobby is that the front desk is not immediately visible to arriving guests and atmospheric
that there is a lack of smooth traffic flow from the front desk to the elevators (Caro,
2001). Related to this research is the effect of crowding (Eroglu and Machleit, 1990; elements
Grossbart et al., 1990; Wakefield and Blodgett, 1994). The layout should minimize
crowding in order to create a favorable impression among guests. Architectural
design books argue that the layout is contingent on several factors including the 537
size of the hotel, grade or standard, patterns of arrivals and departures, tour and
convention bookings, length of stay, and seasonality (Lawson, 1976; Rutes and
Penner, 1985). Based on the importance of layout in the functionality of hotel lobby,
it is hypothesized that:
H2. Layout has a significant relationship to customers’ impression of the hotel
lobby.
Colors. Colors and color combinations have been studied by those interested in retail
atmospherics and cognitive psychology. In an early landmark study by Guilford
and Smith (1959), it was found that colors that are bright and highly saturated tend
to produce pleasant feelings. While people may prefer certain colors, it was found
that the appropriateness of the color varies with the function of the room (Slatter
and Whitfield, 1977). Colors and color combinations have also been found to help
people find their way in a building (Evans et al., 1980). In retail atmospheric studies,
it was confirmed that color has the ability to attract customers (Bellizzi et al., 1983)
and the ability to create pleasant feelings among customers (Bellizzi and Hite, 1992).
Therefore, colors and color combinations affect perceptions and attitudes, and may
even cause certain behavioral differences (Robson, 1999). Accordingly, it is
hypothesized that:
H3. Colors have a significant effect on customers’ impression of the hotel lobby.
Lighting. In studies cited by Mehrabian and Russell (1974), people tend to be drawn to
light sources. Another study found that the contrast of a bright area with that of a
darker area, sometimes referred to as glare, to be unpleasant (as referenced in
Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). As for perceived image, soft incandescent lighting is
usually associated with a higher quality environment, while bright fluorescent lighting
is associated with a discount image (Baker et al., 1994; Sharma and Stafford, 2000). It is
therefore hypothesized that:
H4. Lighting has a significant influence on customers’ impression of the hotel
lobby.
Furnishings. While furnishings are an important part of the physical environment,
very little research has been done that focuses specifically on this one element.
However, it is included in all of the atmospheric and servicescape models (Baker, 1987;
Bitner, 1992; Wakefield and Blodgett, 1994, 1996, 1999) but may be referred to using
different terminology depending on the physical setting being studied. In this research,
the furnishings are hypothesized as:
H5. Furnishings have a significant association with customers’ impression of the
hotel lobby.

IJCHM Methodology
18,7 As used in many other atmospheric or servicescape research (Bitner, 1990; Ritterfeld
and Cupchik, 1996), a scenario approach along with color photographs of hotel lobbies
were used in this research study. Participants were told that they were attending a
conference and that this was one of the hotels used by conference attendees. Two color
photographs of the hotel lobby were selected, one showing the front desk and the other
538 showing the hotel lobby seating area. The name of the specific hotel was not given and
no identification was visible in the photographs to control for the influence of branding.
While some may argue that this is not a true measurement of atmospherics or
servicescapes, this approach may have some unique benefits. It provides some degree
of control in regards to the research study. If this research were to take place in an
actual physical environment, the researchers might have difficulty in controlling for
those factors that are not part of the physical environment but may be included
inadvertently in the evaluation of the physical environment such as prior experience or
branding. People may be in a physical environment for many different reasons, which
would lead to evaluations from very different perspectives. Another advantage is that
this research approach may be more practical in that the photographs could be
replaced with architectural renderings or virtual design in order to evaluate the designs
of a physical environment before it is built. As for some of the other elements that are
considered part of the physical environment such as temperature and noise, these tend
to be unnoticed or not even considered in the evaluation of a physical environment
unless they are extremes (i.e. too hot or too cold) (Baker, 1987).
Based on the examination of previous research, five atmospheric elements were
included in the research:
(1) layouts;
(2) style;
(3) color;
(4) lighting; and
(5) furnishings.

While there are other elements that make up the physical environment of a hotel lobby,
these elements were selected because of their significant role in the service settings.
Semantic differentials were used to assess each of the atmospheric elements along with
the overall impression of the hotel lobby, this method provided a good way of
assessing these complex elements of the physical environment (Bitner, 1990; Donovan
and Rossiter, 1982).
A convenience sample was used for this study in that university faculty, who travel
to conferences and other similar type meetings, were invited to participate in the study.
Research participants were from several different universities in the USA. An effort
was made to contact people in many different academic disciplines. The survey was
done on-line to allow for wider participation, easier distribution of the survey due to the
color photographs and efficient collection of data. Research participants would be
randomly shown one of four hotel lobbies. This was an effort to make the research
more realistic in that an individual enters a hotel lobby and makes an assessment of the
physical environment at that particular moment. Special care was taken to select the
four hotels that were from the same rating category and classification. A total of 105

responses were collected and three were deleted from the data set due to The effects of
incompleteness. Thus, 102 responses were used for analysis. atmospheric
elements
Results
Atmospheric elements and validation
Means and standard deviations for each of the atmospheric items are presented in
Table I. The mean values were all above 0, which signifies that the respondents
539
assessed the atmospheric items in consistently positive ways.
To validate the developed elements, a measurement model was estimated with a
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Cronbach’s alphas were calculated to assess the
internal consistency of atmospheric elements and are presented in Table II. All alphas
exceed the minimum hurdle of 0.7, as recommended by Nunnally (1978), suggesting
reliability in measuring each construct. The model fit indices indicate that the proposed
model reasonably fits the data. All of the loadings were greater than 0.53 and
significant, suggesting convergent validity (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988).
Discriminant validity among the atmospheric elements was examined using two
methods. First, following the criteria suggested by Sivadas and Dwyer (2000), the
researchers calculated the average variances extracted (AVE) for the elements to see if
the elements accounted for more than 50 percent of the corresponding atmospheric
items. All but one (furnishings) of the elements exceeded the recommended level of
AVE. Second, as Gerbing and Anderson (1988) recommended, the researchers tested if

Atmospheric elements and items Mean (scale: 2 3 , þ 3) Standard deviation Reliability Alpha

Style 0.86
Current 1.09 1.52
Refined 1.26 1.10
Artful 0.76 1.52
Beautiful 1.01 1.30
Impressive 0.90 1.40
Layout 0.85
Graceful 0.66 1.63
Proportionate 0.70 1.67
Accommodating 0.80 1.66
Uncluttered 1.19 1.82
Colors 0.95
Beautiful 0.89 1.48
Soothing 0.73 1.36
Pleasant 0.95 1.41
Lighting 0.95
Appropriate 1.42 1.46
Inviting 1.25 1.55
Positive 1.33 1.50
Furnishings 0.73
Beautiful 0.73 1.48 Table I.
Comfortable 0.87 1.43 Atmospheric elements
High quality 1.12 1.33 and items

IJCHM
Average
18,7 variance
Standardized extracted (AVE)
Atmospheric elements and items factor loadings t-value (%)

Style 58.56
540 Current 0.59 –
Refined 0.79 5.99*
Artful 0.69 5.50*
Beautiful 0.91 6.47*
Impressive 0.81 6.22*
Layout 62.98
Graceful 0.90 –
Proportionate 0.84 10.93*
Accommodating 0.85 11.33*
Uncluttered 0.53 5.70*
Colors 84.77
Beautiful 0.90 –
Soothing 0.89 14.13*
Pleasant 0.97 17.45*
Lighting 86.55
Appropriate 0.90 –
Inviting 0.96 16.88*
Positive 0.93 15.36*
Furnishings 47.55
Beautiful 0.75 –
Comfortable 0.60 5.89*
High quality 0.71 6.90*
Overall lobby impression 87.49
Good 0.94 –
Beautiful 0.90 16.23*
Inviting 0.97 21.97*
Comfortable 0.93 18.92*
Model fit statistics
x2 (194): 365.4 (p ¼ 0:00)
x2 /d.f.: 1.88
Normed Fit Index (NFI): 0.891
Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI or NNFI): 0.908
Comparative Fit Index (CFI): 0.923
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA): 0.079
Table II.
Measurement model Notes: * p # 0:001
results The first path of each construct was set to 1, so no t ÿ value was given to the first path

the correlations among atmospheric elements were significantly different from 1.
Among them, only furnishings and style had 1 in the 95 percent confidence interval of
the correlation. The result indicated that the furnishings and style elements do not
have discriminant validity, which means that both elements do not represent unique
dimensions. Thus, the researchers decided to drop the furnishings construct since it
failed to pass the AVE test, either.

Structural model results The effects of
A structural equation model with four remaining atmospheric elements (style, layout, atmospheric
colors, and lighting) was estimated using Maximum Likelihood (ML) to test the effects
of the elements on customers’ impression. Examination of overall fit indices of the elements
structural model indicated a good fit of the model to the data. Figure 1 presents the
overall results of the structural equation model.
Three of the hypothesized paths were statistically significant. The style element 541
was found to have a positive effect on the impression of hotel lobby (b11 ¼ 0:32,
t ¼ 2:63). That is, if a hotel was satisfactorily designed using current and not outdated
concepts, had an element of refinement, and was both artistic and beautiful, it is
expected to positively impress customers. Thus, the first hypothesized path was
supported by the result. Contrary to the hypothesis, the layout element was not
significant (b12 ¼ 0:03, t ¼ 0:34). The result suggested that the layout of a hotel lobby

Figure 1.
A structural model for
lobby impression

IJCHM alone might not contribute to a significant improvement in customers’ impression. The
18,7 third path for the effect of the colors element on lobby impression was statistically
significant (b12 ¼ 0:39, t ¼ 3:49), showing the greatest standardized parameter
estimate among all the paths tested. This indicates that colors are the most influential
element to affect overall lobby impression. The implication to hotel developers and
operators is how important colors are in creating the overall impression of the hotel
542 lobby. Finally, the lighting-to-impression path was also significant (b12 ¼ 0:26,
t ¼ 3:46) as expected (see Table III).

Conclusion
The objective of the study was to test the effects of atmospheric elements on the guest’s
first impression of a hotel lobby. The researchers proposed five atmospheric elements:
(1) style;
(2) layout;
(3) colors;
(4) lighting; and
(5) furnishings.

During the element validation process, the furnishing element was excluded for further
analysis since it was found not to represent a unique dimension of atmospheric
elements. As was indicated in the literature review, furnishings often overlap to some
degree with style because furnishings are usually selected to match with the overall
architectural style. The space is created first and then furnished. Therefore, the results
of this study may not be truly unexpected. A structural analysis to examine the effects
of the remaining four exogenous elements on lobby impression revealed that three
including style, colors, and lighting significantly influence lobby impression. The
atmospheric element for the layout of the hotel lobby was revealed to be not as
important as expected. Even though the three significant elements are of importance in
practice, colors appeared to be most influential, suggesting that hoteliers need to take

Path Standardized parameter estimate (b) t-value

Style ! Lobby impression (b11) 0.32 2.63*
Layout ! Lobby impression (b12) 0.03 0.34
Colors ! Lobby impression (b13) 0.39 3.49**
Lighting ! Lobby impression (b14) 0.26 3.46**
R-Square 0.799
Model fit statistics
x2 (142): 279.2 (p ¼ 0:00)
x2 /d.f.: 1.97
Normed Fit Index (NFI): 0.903
Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI or NNFI): 0.919
Comparative Fit Index (CFI): 0.933
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA): 0.079
Table III.
Structural model results Notes: * p # 0:01, ** p # 0:001

special care in selecting the colors used in their facilities. The results also suggest that The effects of
color changes, when renovating hotels, may be one of the most effective tools to create atmospheric
positive impression of the lobby.
elements
Managerial implications
From a practical standpoint, this research helps to identify those atmospheric elements
that make up the physical environment of a hotel lobby and are used in determining 543
customers’ overall impression. Understanding the elements that comprise a hotel
lobby, allows the hotelier to make improvements in those areas that would lead to a
better overall impression and evaluation of the hotel lobby. This research can also be
extended to room design such as dining rooms, guest rooms, and other significant
spaces within a hotel or other hospitality settings such as a restaurant. While this
research makes no attempt to determine what colors are preferable, these findings do
indicate that extra caution and care should be taken in the selection of the colors for the
hotel lobby. However, this does not mean that hoteliers should use only neutral colors
in their hotel lobbies. The hotel lobbies included in this study contained a variety of
colors, some of which were dramatic including dark and bold color combinations. Also,
one must recognize that the research did not examine only one specific color for each
hotel lobby but the color combinations that existed in each hotel lobby. Certain colors
combined with other colors may be viewed as acceptable or even preferred, while the
colors individually may be undesirable or considered ugly. Due to the significant
influence of color on the overall impression of hotel lobbies, potential guests should be
surveyed and further research needs to be done on what colors and color combinations
create more positive or favorable reactions by guests.
Even though color appeared to be the most significant, style and lightning also
appeared to be significant. Style like colors comes from a combination of physical
elements. While a single item may not be pleasing or interesting by itself, the item
combined with other items can create a unique and desirable style. However, style is
much more complex than color and further research is warranted. As mentioned
earlier, this research does not attempt to define what constitutes good style or not, but
it does indicate that style like colors should be carefully considered from the
perspective of the guests or the target market for that hotel. As for lighting, the trend in
the hotel industry is to provide more lighting with a large percentage coming from
natural lighting during daylight hours. There has been a shift away from the low or
subdued lighting of past hotel lobby designs as is evident in many of the new hotel
prototypes that incorporate more windows into the design of the hotel lobby and more
abundant lighting throughout. The findings of this research indicate that is a step in
the right direction. Hoteliers should be concerned with the lighting and what is deemed
appropriate by their guests.
This research is not free from limitations. One limitation was found in the narrow
scope of this research. The study focused only on the hotel lobby, so the application of
the results has to be confined to the hotel lobby. Thus, future research would hopefully
include other major areas of a hotel. While this was a realistic sample given the
scenario and focus of the research, it would be worthwhile to expand this research to
include business travelers in general. Leisure travelers also could be surveyed to
determine if there are differences among these two types of travelers in the evaluation
of hotel lobbies. If leisure travelers are included in future research, the classification of

IJCHM hotel would also need to be broadened. This research primarily focused on business
18,7 hotels, which is one classification of hotel. Other classifications of hotels that might be
interesting for further research might include luxury or theme properties because of the
significance of the hotel lobby in their design.
This research’s primary contribution is that atmospheric elements such as colors,
style, and lighting do contribute to the overall impression formed by guests. The
544 findings of this research suggest that thinking that the physical environment of a hotel
lobby is not as important as other aspects of hotel operations or that a bad hotel lobby
design will not be of concern to the hotel guest are simply not true. Like other
exploratory research, this research demonstrates that there is a need for continued and
greater research into the unique atmospheres and servicescapes that exist in the hotel
industry.

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Corresponding author
Cary C. Countryman can be contacted at: ccountryman@uh.edu

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