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1. [HTM 3143]
Coding
Thursday, 22 September

2. We are glad you like these…
BROAD COMMENTS LECTURER/TUTOR
 In-depth learning experience
 Friendliness,
 Good for professional/research Resourceful,
writing knowledgeable,
 Good for FYP, good for data experienced
analysis and research researcher,
 Active class interaction enhances responsible,
learning humorous, well-
organized, well-
CLASSROOM SPECIFICS prepared, good
 Good examples, lots of examples English
 Clear, detailed explanation
 Notes: clear, printed,  No mid-term test; no
comprehensive exam
 Good design of ppt slides

3. We will be pleased to improve on These
STRUCTURAL/ADMINISTRATIVE ASPECTS
 One lecturer to teach the whole subject (instead of SHTM and
AMA co-teaching)
 Move to a better classroom
 Duration (8 weeks) is too short
 Big class, maintain good order in class, no talking in class
 Mobile ringing penalty as donation to charity
FORMATIVE ASSIGNMENT (PROJECT)
 Instruction/direction/practical guideline of project, complicated
process of the project
 Allow us to choose our own topic for project
 Heavy workload, need more time, “less workload pls”
 Too early to hand in assignment
 More examples to relate to assignment

4. We will be pleased to improve on These
CLASSROOM TEACHING
 Technical/difficult/abstract terms
 More (detailed) examples to explain abstract terms/concepts (e.g.,
photos, pictures, etc.); Explain in simple words…
 Teaching could go faster (however, …don’t speak too fast)
 Overlapped content with method subject
 “I don’t really understand this subject”; Difficult to understand; too
many things
 Better time management, finish class punctually
 Post materials 3 days before lecture; Upload tutorial ppt to webct
 More readings should be provided
 Need more interactions and practice in class
 Consistency in lecture and tutorial sessions
 Accent of speaking, speak louder and more clearly, don’t speak
too fast
 More assistance from lecturer and tutor

5. Lecture Outline
 The grounded theory methodology
 Preparing for and doing inductive
content analysis
 Open, axial and selective coding
 Coding frame
 Examples and exercises

6. Objectives
 By the end of this lecture, you should be
able to:
• Explain the grounded theory (or inductive)
approach to analyzing qualitative data
• Identify and differentiate open, axial and
selective coding
• Apply the three coding schemes to your
interview transcript

7. Grounded Theory—an introduction
Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of
grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research.
New York: Aldine.
[the gist]
 General methodology (systematic set of procedures)
for developing and generating an inductively derived
(grounded) theory about a phenomenon.
 “Theory” is grounded (i.e. based) in the data and
derived from a systematic set of procedures that
involves data collection and analysis pertaining to that
phenomenon under study.
 The researcher studies the topic & its setting over time

8. Grounded Theory
 “Let the informant speak and don’t get in the way”
 Theoretical sensitivity and sensitizing concepts —
It is not based on any pre-conceived or borrowed
concept.
 Interpretation incorporates the voices and
perspectives of the informants
 A general method for inductive analysis, widely
used in social sciences disciplines

9. Grounded Theory
 As a method:
• Constant comparisonthrough continuous interplay
between analysis and data collection until “theoretical
saturation”.
• Uses theoretical sampling in data collection and
analysis; that is, “…the process of data collection for
generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects,
codes and analyzes his data and decides what data to
collect next and where to find them, in order to develop
his theory as it emerges” (p.45)
• Systematic coding procedure: Open, axial, selective
coding

10. Grounded Theory
 Three important features:
• Theories are always traceable to the data that
give rise to it
• Theories are “fluid” embrace multiple actors
and emphasize temporality and process
• The “fitness” of a theory live with data to see
whether and how (to what extent) a theory fits
the situation under study

11. Grounded Theory
 Challenges for researchers/users
• Need to set aside as much as possible theoretical ideas
or notions so that the analytic, substantive theory can
emerge.
• Assure it is a truly systematic approach to research
with specific steps in data analysis
• Difficulty in determining when categories are saturated
or theories are sufficiently detailed
• Need to recognize that the primary outcome of using
this approach is a theory with specific components:
 A central phenomenon
 Causal conditions
 Strategies conditions and context
 And consequences

12. Preparing for and doing inductive
content analysis
 Making sense out of the data
1. Crucial to the overall ability of the
researcher to describe and explain what
is being studied
2. Live with the data
3. Constantly move back and forth
between data and concepts to fully
describe and explain what is being
researched

13. Preparing for and doing analysis
 Organizing the data
• Managing the data
• Expanding data files
• Preparing the analysis
 Understanding the Data
• Analyzing the data
• Living with the data and revising the analysis
Reading: Kirby, S., & McKenna, K. (1989). Chapter 6. Preparing for and
doing analysis. In Experience research social change (pp.128-154).
Toronto: Garamond Press.

14. Managing the data
 Examine how data items and the groupings of data
items generate specific and general patterns
through constant comparison of these data items
until a data item goes together with other item(s)
and can be identified and located together in a
category file
 Analysis and data collection continually overlap
 House data in a PROCESS FILE and a CONTENT
FILE

15. Expanding data files
 An expansion of the number of files will facilitate
analysis of the large amount of data that the
research process has generated….
• Identity file
• Type file
• Document file
• Content file
• Process file
 Software programs such as Nudist N’vivo and
Atlas.ti are designed with the principles of the
grounded theory approach for managing, coding
and sorting, and presenting qualitative data.

16. Preparing the analysis
 BibbitsPropertiesCategoriesSubstantive
theoriesGRAND THEORY
1. Bibbitsthe smallest units of codes
2. Propertiesthe characteristics of bibbits, the themes
and identifiers located within a bibbit
3. Categoriesgroups of bibbits sharing common
properties and going together
4. Substantive theoriestheories developed from the
categorized data that help to describe and explain the
research focus
5. Grand theorysubstantive/grounded theories
empirically and repeatedly verified, tested and/or
falsified

17. Analyzing the data
 Analyze data and group bibbits and properties in
such a way that categories, patterns and/or
themes begin to emerge.
• The analysis files of content a collection of file
folders labelled with different codes
representing category names. Coding refers to
the identification of an idea, event, theme or
common property that identifies the content of a
bibbit.
• The analysis files of process process files
contain information about the dynamics of the
research process

18. Analyzing the data
• Analysis within data categories the first step to consolidate
information. If some bibbits cannot be placed (or aren’t fit
within a category), they are called satellites. Such bibbits
sometimes indicate directions for further data collection or
research
• Analysis between/among data categoriesmoving bibbits or
open codes from category to category for commonality or
“better fit”.
• Cross-referencing all bibbits placed in categories are cross-
referenced, so look for ones that go together. If many are
cross-referenced, it may be an indication of a strong pattern.
• Hurricane thinkingThe research question is written in the
centre of a page. Category names are moved about the page
until those which have the strongest ties remain closest to the
centre, with darker/bolder lines denoting stronger ties (if you
plan to use a diagram to display your data). Patterns will
eventually emerge to describe the data.

19. Living with data/revising analysis
 Step back
 Reflect on the analysis
 Move back and forth amongst bibbits,
properties, and categories
 Rework the analysis as necessary

20. Open, axial and selective coding (Strauss, 1987)
[Reading] Strauss, A. (1987) Qualitative analysis for
social scientists. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
 Open coding  preliminary coding which occurs in
the initial or first stage (sometimes open coding
starts during data collection). It’s a systematic
process of assigning labels or open codes to the
transcribed raw data. May need to note recurring
codes or labels for identifying categories or patterns
 See  seminar handouts
• Tips for open coding
• End-of-lecture exercise

21. Axial coding
 2nd stage that involves a search for the
relationship between open codes, e.g.,
identifying open codes that have common
properties
 Revolves around the “axis” of one category at
a time, and thus so-named
 “Intense” in the sorting of open codes
 Results in cumulative knowledge about the
relationships between that category and others
 DO NOT DISREGARD A SPECIAL/UNIQUE
(stand-alone) CODE (c.p., outliers in quantitative
analysis); this could reflect the essence of
qualitative research [not always frequency counts]

22. Selective coding
 third/final phase of coding which goes beyond axial
coding and involves the identification of broader
themes or categories
 “Code towards the core”, or coding systematically for
the core category
 Delimit coding to only those codes that relate
significantly to the core code
 Look for conditions, interactions, strategies and
consequences that relate to the core category
 Memos are used as an aid in theory integration and in
identifying the core
 Self-consciously systematic (in contrast to open
coding)
 Generation of theory occurs around the core category

23. Selective coding
 Criteria for the core category:
1. It must be central
2. Open and axial codes pointing to the core
must appear frequently
3. Relate easily to other categories
4. Have implications for more general theories
5. Enable a generated or grounded theory to
move forward

24. Coding Frames
 Common classes - categories with
everyday meaning for a culture or society
e.g. age, gender, guest - so people can
easily relate to
 Special classes – labels used by members
of certain groups e.g. jargon. “Out-group” &
“in-group” classifications
 Theoretical classes – emerge in the course
of analysis. Borrowed from special classes &
not immediately observable, but provide a
key link

25. Objective checklist
objective Read through the objective of this lecture and check YES NO
() YES if you feel you have achieved it.
1 Explain the grounded theory (or inductive)
approach to analyzing qualitative data
2 Identify and differentiate open, axial and
selective coding
2 Explain terms, e.g., bibbits, properties,
categories, substantive theory, core
category, etc
3 Apply coding schemes to interview transcript