1. chapter ten
Basics of Report Writing
Slides By Rana Usman Sattar
Student Of BBA(Hons)
PMAS Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi
Gmail: ranaa.usman@gmail
Facebook: usman.shan86@yahoo.com
2. Overview
Define report writing.
Identify and state the problem.
Determine the factors.
Gather information.
Interpret the data.
Organize the findings.
Create topic and talking headings.
Write the report.
Collaborate effectively.
3. What is a report?
An orderly and objective communication of
factual information that serves a business
purpose.
4. Determine the Report Purpose
Conduct a preliminary investigation
– Gather facts to better understand the problem
– Consult many sources
State the problem in writing
– To serve as a record
– To allow others to review it
– To force yourself to get the problem clearly in
mind
5. State the Problem in One of
Three Ways
Infinitive phrase:
"To measure the effect of radio spot advertising
on X company sales"
Question:
"What are the effects on X company sales of radio
spot advertising?"
Declarative statement:
"Company X wants to know how a spot
advertising campaign will affect its sales."
6. Determine the Factors
Types of Factors
Subtopics in informational and some
analytical reports
Hypotheses in problem-solving situations
Bases of comparison in evaluative reports
7. State the Problem and Factors
Using the Infinitive Form with Subtopics
A consumer research organization plans to test three leading
low-priced automobiles in an effort to determine which one is
the best buy as a family car for the typical American consumer.
Problem statement
To determine which of three economy cars is the best buy for
the American Consumer
Factors
Durability Original and trade-in costs
Operating costs Repairs
Comfort Safety
8. State the Problem and Factors
Using the Question Form with Subtopics
A national chain of dress shops wants to learn what qualities to
seek in hiring sales personnel.
Problem statement
What qualities determine the successful salespeople for X Dress
Shop?
Factors
Education
Cultural background
Experience
Vital statistics (age, height, weight, marital status, religion, etc.)
Personal qualities (personality, character, etc.)
9. State the Problem and Factors
Using the Question Form with Subtopics
A daily newspaper wants to know how well the various types of
items in a typical issue are read.
Problem statement
What is the readership of the types of items in a typical issue of
X newspaper?
Factors
Probably such a study would involve an item-by-item survey.
The items would be classified by types, which would be the
factors of the problem.
World news Local news Society
Editorials Sports Comics
10. State the Problem and Factors
Using the Question Form with Hypotheses
You’ve been assigned the problem of determining why sales at
the Moline store have declined.
Problem statement
Why have sales declined at the Moline store?
Factors
Activities of the competition may have caused the decline.
Changes in the economy of the area may have caused the
decline.
Merchandising deficiencies may have caused the decline.
Changes in the economic environment may have caused the
decline.
11. State the Problem and Factors
Using the Infinitive Form with Bases of Comparison
A major soap manufacturer wishes to determine which of three
cities would be best for a new factory.
Problem statement
To determine whether Y company’s new factory should be built
in City A, City B, or City C.
Factors
Availability of labor Nearness to markets
Abundance of raw material Power supply
Tax structure Community attitude
Transportation facilities
12. Gather Information
Primary Secondary
– Observation – Library
– Experiments – Online
– Surveys – Company records
• Telephone (interpreted data)
• Mail/Email
• Web surveys
• Interviews
(personal, expert)
– Company records
(raw data)
13. Interpret the Data
Advice for Avoiding Human Error
Report the facts as they are.
Draw conclusions only when appropriate.
Do not interpret lack of evidence as proof to the
contrary.
Be sure your data are comparable.
Be sure you draw only logical conclusions.
Be sure the data are reliable and representative.
Give attention to all important facts.
Tailor your claims to your data.
14. Attitudes and Practices Conducive
to Sound Interpreting
Maintain a judicial attitude.
Consult with others.
Test the interpretations.
– 1. Test of Experience
“Is this conclusion logical in light of all I know?”
– 2. Negative Test
Examine the opposite interpretation--build a case
for it.
15. Use of Statistical Tools in
Interpretation
Statistical tools enable writers to simplify
data.
Most readers can understand descriptive
statistics.
Writers should explicitly explain more
sophisticated statistical techniques.
16. A Logical Conclusion?
Q. A study produced data that showed United States
college students to be far behind their comparable
groups in European countries. The conclusion was
made that the educational systems in these
European countries are superior to that in the
United States.
A. The education systems are not comparable. The
United States is committed to a system of educating
the masses. Many of the other countries maintain a
system of highly selective education.
17. A Logical Conclusion?
Q. The editor of a leading magazine for businesspeople
reported that unsolicited email she had received
from her readers justified a conclusion that the
public favored stronger government controls over
unions.
A. Does the editor receive mail from readers
representative of the public? More than likely the
group writing her consists of limited segments of
the total population.
18. A Logical Conclusion?
Q. A campus survey at a Midwestern university showed
that 92 percent of the students of the Christian
faiths favored a certain issue, but only 33 percent of
Hindu students favored the matter. The conclusion
reached was that Christians and Hindus were far
apart on this matter.
A. The statistics for Hindu students were based on
unreliable data. Since few Hindu students attend
our universities, most likely the sample was small.
19. A Logical Conclusion?
Q. A report writer found data showing that sales of soft
drinks were correlated with vacation travel. She
concluded that soft drink sales were heavily
affected by vacations.
A. Probably both are related to seasonal factors. They
have no cause-effect relationship.
20. Organize the Information
An organization plan
serves as a blueprint for the report
ensures order in the report
provides headings for use in the report
enables you to share your plan with others
can be changed as your report develops
21. One Option:
Conventional Outline Form
I. First-level heading
A. Second-level heading
B. Second-level heading
1. Third-level heading
2. Third-level heading
a. Fourth-level
(1) Fifth-level
(a) Sixth-level
II. First-level heading
A. Second-level heading
B. Second-level heading
Etc.
22. Another Option:
The Decimal System
1.0 First-level heading
1.1 Second-level heading
1.2. Second-level heading
1.2.1 Third-level heading
1.2.2 Third-level heading
1.2.2.1 Fourth-level
2.0 First-level heading
2.1 Second-level heading
2.2 Second-level heading
Etc.
23. Procedure for Constructing an Outline
by Process of Division (1 of 3)
I. Step 1
Introduction
Divide the whole into
II. comparable parts. This gives
the Roman number parts of
III. the outline. Usually an
introduction begins the
IV. outline. Some combination
of summary, conclusion,
recommendation ends it.
V.
24. Procedure for Constructing an Outline by
Process of Division (2 of 3)
I. A
B Step 2
C
II. A Divide each roman section.
B This gives the A., B, C
III. A headings.
B
C
IV. A
. B
V. A
B
25. Procedure for Constructing an Outline by
Process of Division (3 of 3)
I. A Step 3
B
C Then divide each A, B, C
II. A 1
2 heading. This gives the 1,
B 2,3 headings.
III. A
B
C Continue dividing as long
IV. A as it is practical to do so.
1
B 2
3
V. A
1
B 2
27. Organization of a Report on the
History of Manufacturing in New York
Main Heading Possibilities (1 of 4)
Organization by time
I. Introduction
II. Before 1750
III. 1750-1800
IV. 1801-1850
V. Etc.
28. Organization of a Report on the
History of Manufacturing in New York
Main Heading Possibilities (2 of 4)
Organization by place
I. Introduction
II. Northern region
III. Eastern region
IV. Southern region
V. Etc.
29. Organization of a Report on the
History of Manufacturing in New York
Main Heading Possibilities (3 of 4)
Organization by quantity
I. Introduction
II. More than 500 employees
III. 20-500 employees
IV. Less than 20 employee
V. Conclusion
30. Organization of a Report on the
History of Manufacturing in New York
Main Heading Possibilities (4 of 4)
Organization by factors
I. Introduction
II. Textiles
III. Foods
IV. Furniture
V. Etc.
31. Combination Division Forms
First division by time; second division by time
I.Introduction
II.Before 1750
A. 1630-1680
B. 1681-1710
C. 1711-1750
III.1751-1800
A. 1751-1780
B. 1781-1800
IV.Etc.
32. Combination Division Forms
First division by time; second division by place
I.Introduction
II.Before 1750
A. Northern region
B. Eastern region
C. Southern region
D. Western region
III.1751-1800
A. Northern region
B. Etc.
33. Combination Division Forms
First division by time; second division by factor
I.Introduction
II.Before 1750
A. Food
B. Chemicals
C. Textiles
D. Etc.
III.1751-1800
A. Food
B. Chemicals
C. Etc.
IV.Etc.
34. Topic or Talking Headings? (1 of 2)
Topic headings only identify the topics.
I. Population
A.Houston
B.Springfield
C.San Diego
II. Income
A.Houston
B.Springfield
C.San Diego
35. Topic or Talking Headings? (2 of 2)
Talking headings identify the topic and say
something about it.
I. Growing population signals market growth
A.Houston leads the nation
B.Springfield has steadiest increase
C.San Diego maintains status quo
36. Wording of Headings
Parallel Construction
Conciseness in Wording
Variety of Expression
37. Parallelism in Construction of Headings
Equal level headings should be in the same
grammatical format—for example, all noun phrases, all
sentences, or all truncated (headline-style) sentences.
Noun Phrase
– “High Rate of Sales in District III”
Sentence
– “District II Sales Rank Second”
Truncated Sentence
– “District I at Bottom”
38. Point out any violations of grammatical parallelism in
the following subheads of major division of a
report.
I.Sporting Goods Show Large Increase
II.Modest Increase in Hardware Volume
III.Automotive Parts Remain Unchanged
IV.Plumbing Supplies Decline Slightly.
39. Point out any violations of grammatical parallelism in
the following subheads of major division of a
report.
A. Predominance of Cotton Farming
in Southern Region
B. Livestock Paces Farm Income in
the Western Region
C. Wheat Crop Dominant in the
Northern Region
D. Truck Farming Leads in Central and
Eastern Regions
40. Conciseness in Wording
Headings should be as short as possible
while still conveying clear meaning.
Not this:
Personal appearance enhancement is the most
desirable benefit of lasik surgery that patients
report.
But this:
Personal appearance most desirable benefit
41. Variety of Expression
Replace monotonous repetitions of words in topic
headings with a variety of words.
Not this:
– Illinois Computer Sales
– New York Computer Sales
– Washington Computer Sales
But this:
– Illinois Ranks First in Industry Sales
– New York Maintains Second Position
– Washington Posts Third Slot
42. Write the Report
Put the report in context with your beginning
and ending.
Be objective.
– Believability
– Impersonal vs. personal writing
Maintain a consistent time viewpoint.
Use smooth transitions.
Maintain interest.
43. Beginnings and Endings
A good beginning . . .
– states the subject of the report
– reveals what kind of data it is based upon
– indicates its likely significance to the reader
A good ending . . .
– may summarize; or summarize and interpret; or
summarize, interpret, and recommend—
depending on the reader
– must make the informational “gist” clear
– must make the contents’ significance clear
44. Impersonal vs. Personal Styles (1 of 2)
Impersonal
With the Jones project completed, work now is
continuing on the next annual report, with a
special focus on the new high-temperature
technique.
Personal
During the first week of the period, I was
completing the Jones project. I now am writing a
description of the new high-temperature
technique for the next annual report.
45. Impersonal vs. Personal Styles (2 of 2)
Impersonal
The current period has been devoted to training on
the use of the new equipment.
Personal
I have spent the current period getting trained on
using the new equipment.
46. Maintain Logic and Consistency
in Time Viewpoint (1 of 4)
Avoid Illogical Time Shifts
Almost 37 percent of the merchants
interviewed favored the Wilson plan. Only 14
percent of them prefer the Borden plan.
47. Maintain Logic and Consistency
in Time Viewpoint (2 of 4)
Consistent Past
Since Dixie Cola was produced and distributed
in the South, there was little difficulty in
establishing its identity in that region.
Strong markets were designated as those that
required little or no logical adaptation of
commercials. Mississippi, Louisiana, and
Alabama fell in that category.
48. Maintain Logic and Consistency
in Time Viewpoint (3 of 4)
Consistent Present
Since Dixie Cola is produced and distributed in
the south, there is little difficulty in
establishing its identity in that region.
Strong markets are designated as those that
require little or no local adaptation of
commercials. Mississippi, Louisiana, and
Alabama fall in that category.
49. Maintain Logic and Consistency in
Time Viewpoint (4 of 4)
Logical Shifts Are Appropriate
Of the merchants interviewed, 54 percent feel
that such legislation is needed. Only 33
percent held this position a scant three years
ago. Current indications are that the number
favoring the bill will be much greater within
another three years.
50. Transitions are Bridges for Moving the
Reader Through Your Report
Transition Transition
Idea Idea Idea Etc.
51. Use of Transition Words
to Relate Paragraphs
End of paragraph . . . which makes these visuals among the simplest to construct.
Beginning of next Even though the line graphs are simple, three errors commonly are
paragraph made in constructing them. One is the common violation of zero
origin. The Y scale (vertical axis) must . . .
Beginning of next Second is the error of representing both X and Y scales on the grid
paragraph by unequal distances. Any deviation from . . .
Beginning of next A third error concerns the determination of proportions of the . . .
paragraph
End of paragraph . . . clearly is the most economical to operate.
Beginning of next In spite of its economy, the Xerox copier presents a major
paragraph disadvantage. It has the highest breakdown record of the
machines tested. In fact, over the past seven months. . .
52. Transition Though Word Connection (1 of
2)
Wormy oranges dumped from a passing ship floated
ashore in Texas. Consequently, another battle had
to be waged against the Mediterranean fruit fly.
Transitional elements are essential to understanding.
They are the mortar that hold bricks of thought
together.
Before buying plants, be sure you know which
varieties are adapted to your area. Adapted
varieties usually are sold by local nurseries.
53. Transition Though Word Connection (2 of
2)
A knowledge of your subject, a familiarity with
words, and a compassion for your reader--all are
essential to clear exposition.
In early spring, prepare the soil. After the soil
warms, drill the seed at a rate of ten pounds per
acre.
54. Maintain Interest
Select words carefully.
Watch the rhythm of expression.
Stress content over techniques.
Be complete without using more words than
necessary.
55. Sequence of Activities Involved in
Collaborative Writing Projects
1. Determine Purpose
2. Identify Factors
3. Gather Facts
4. Interpret Facts
5. Organize Facts
6. Plan the Writing
7. Write Assigned Parts
8. Revise Collaboratively
9. Edit Final Draft
10-1 Use this slide to introduce the chapter. The photo of report covers could be used to discuss the importance of choosing one that communicates an appropriate message as well as one that is in line with its expected use. Or it could be used to discuss why report writing is important for business or why studying it is important.
10-2 This overview slide shows the topics to be covered in this chapter.
10-3 This slide gives the definition of reports. Show the definition first, then click to underline and discuss the key words. Encourage students to participate in the discussion if class size permits.
10-4 This slide emphasizes getting the problem in mind, conducting an informal investigation, and stating the problem in writing.
10-5 This slide illustrates the three ways to state a report problem—in the infinitive phrase, the question form, and the declarative statement. After showing them, you may want to select a report case from the text, have students read the problem, and have them state the problem in each of the three ways. It is always best to have the student write the problem statement.
10-6 This slide introduces the student to different ways to determine the factors of reports based on the nature of the report itself.
10-7 These slides take the student through the process of determining a problem. First comes a brief description of a problem. From this description, the student should develop a problem statement—then determine the factors involved. The form for the problem statement is not absolute. Any of the three forms can be used. The slides are designed so that you can move through the three parts in sequence.
10-8 By covering the slide in successive parts (situation, problem statement, factor determination), you can take the student through the thinking process involved in determining a report problem.
10-9
10-10
10-11
10-12 You can use this slide both to show the ways to gather facts for a report and to explain the difference between primary and secondary research.
10-13 This slide reviews advice for avoiding human error in interpreting.
10-14 This slide presents procedures a writer can use to view interpretations of findings from a variety of perspectives. This attention to careful interpretation helps ensure that the interpretations are valid.
10-15 This slide reminds the reader of the usefulness of statistics in interpreting data and presenting the interpretations clearly to a reader.
10-16 You may use the series of problems on these next few slides to illustrate specific cases of interpretation errors in reports. Show the question first and have the students write their answers. Discuss them and then show the answer provided.
10-17
10-18
10-19
10-20 This slide identifies the purposes that organizing the report serves.
10-21 This slide illustrates the conventional (Roman Numeral) format for a report outline. (As the chapter says, however, the writer’s outline will usually not need to be this formally prepared. The time to polish up the outline’s format is when turning it into the report’s table of contents—and even then, an elaborate numbering and lettering scheme such as this one will be regarded by many readers as distracting.)
10-22 This slide illustrates the decimal format for a report outline. You may want to run a brief demo of how to use the outline feature of the word processor to create these outlines easily.
10-23 These next three slides summarize organization of data as a process of division.
10-24
10-25
10-26 This overview slide presents various ways a writer might divide up a report based on the primary relationship among the data. Examples of each of these strategies follow.
10-27 This illustration takes the student through the process of organizing a problem. The problem is a simple one—a report on the history of manufacturing in a certain state or province. As the slides show, the division could be made by time, place, quantity, factor, or a combination.
10-28 Readers interested in specific geographic areas (such as members of local chambers of commerce) would prefer a place division.
10-29 Readers interested in the size of manufacturing companies (such as those looking for effectiveness of various management practices by company size) would prefer a quantity division.
10-30 Each would make a logical organization plan. Which one to use would depend on the reader’s needs. An historian probably would prefer a time arrangement. Members of manufacturing groups would prefer a factor arrangement.
10-31 In these illustrations, possibilities for second-level heading are shown (also time, place, factor). Additional levels of subdivision (at third, fourth levels, etc.) would involve similar possibilities. All conventional relationships of data become possibilities when another division is considered. The conventional relationship to use in each case would be a matter of determining what is best given the problem statement and specific readers involved.
10-32
10-33
10-34 You can use these illustrations to explain the differences between topic and talking headings.
10-35
10-36 Here is an overview slide that identifies a few of the basic guidelines for wording headings. Examples of each of these guidelines follow.
10-37 You can use this slide to demonstrate three different grammatical forms for making equal-level headings parallel.
10-38 You can use these next two slides to show students how to make headings parallel. Here I, III, and IV are sentences, while II is a noun phrase. Changing II to a sentence—”Hardware Volume Increases Modestly”— would make them parallel. Notice that all sentences are consistent in verb tense (present).
10-39 Here headings B and D are sentences while A is a noun phrase and C is a truncated sentence. The simplest way to make them all parallel is to change A and C to sentences—”Cotton Farming Predominates in Southern Region”; “Wheat Crop Prevails in Northern Region.”
10-40 You can use this slide to demonstrate a way to write concise headings.
10-41 You can use this slide to demonstrate how variety of expression not only prevents monotony but also helps build the reader’s interest.
10-42 This overview slide points out a few of the major strategies a report writer should employ when writing a report. Examples of some of these strategies follow.
10-43 There is more on beginnings and endings in the next two chapters, but you can use this slide to discuss generally what these two important report parts need to accomplish.
10-44 These next two slides show examples of impersonal and personal styles.
10-45
10-46 Examples of logic (and illogic) and consistency (and inconsistency) in handling time viewpoints are shown. The idea is to be consistent in time viewpoint. Here the first sentence uses a past tense and the second uses present. Both are from the same data set. Hence, this writing is confusing and illogical.
10-47 Report writers can report events in the past tense if that is when the events occurred.
10-48 Or they can use the present tense if that is when the events are happening.
10-49 They can use several tenses as long as the facts are placed logically in time. Here you see the present, past, and future tenses used correctly.
10-50 You can use this slide to illustrate the meaning of transition—a bridging of ideas, the connecting tissue in writing. Before you have transitions, you must have ideas and a logical arrangement of them. Put differently, you must organize first.
10-51 The next three slides contain excerpts from reports showing how transition words can tie information together. This slide shows the key words (transition words italicized) of successive paragraphs. Note how these words add structure and relate the information presented.
10-52 The examples in this slide and the next show how a transitional phrase and word repetition combine to connect the succeeding items of information.
10-53
10-54 Summarized here are points for maintaining interest in reports.
10-55 This final slide presents the basic steps that writers working in groups and teams use to produce a final report in one voice.
10-56 This ending quote on perseverance shows students that this quality is often needed when one is writing a successful report, whether for class or in business.