3. AUDIENCE CONSUMPTION
Perhaps ‘the’ most important part of the process
for media producers
Tailor products to audience preferences
Identify suitable advertising space
Technological improvements and usability
Impression management
Explore social trends for future policy
3
4. AUDIENCE CONSUMPTION
Perhaps ‘the’ most important part of the process
for media producers
Tailor products to audience preferences
Identify suitable advertising space
Technological improvements and usability
Impression management
Explore social trends for future policy
Lots of myths exist regarding audience
relationships with the media
4
6. AUDIENCE RESEARCH
2 APPROACHES
Quantitative data
Based on volume
i.e., amount of people participated.
Qualitative data
Based on level of detail
i.e., amount of data from individuals
6
7. AUDIENCE RESEARCH
2 APPROACHES
Quantitative data
Based on volume
i.e., amount of people participated
Qualitative data
Based on level of detail
i.e., amount of data from individuals
7
8. AUDIENCE RESEARCH
2 APPROACHES
Quantitative data
Based on volume
i.e., amount of people participated
Qualitative data
Based on level of detail
i.e., amount of data from individuals
Ethnography – starts with people first rather
than a hypothesis
8
9. ETHNOGRAPHIC AUDIENCE
RESEARCH
A way of conducting research into what is
occurring in the wider social world
Observation
Listening
Questioning
Describes intimate human-social phenomena
Draws from cultural anthropology
9
10. AUDIENCE TEST SCREENING
10
Invented in 1919 by Harry Lloyd in order to
change a film before the final release to better
suit a mass audience
Questionnaire based
11. AUDIENCE TEST SCREENING
11
Invented in 1919 by Harry Lloyd in order to
change a film before the final release to better
suit a mass audience
Questionnaire based
12. AUDIENCE TEST SCREENING
12
Invented in 1919 by Harry Lloyd in order to
change a film before the final release to better
suit a mass audience
Questionnaire based
Darker ending removed
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ch2vPwOlEX4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jx49d_GwskU
13. ETHNOGRAPHY AS ‘HANGING
OUT?’
Machin (2002: p1):
The role of the ethnographer is to be
‘finely tuned to the patterns and
processes that make up the social world’
Key figures in anthropology:
Bronisław Malinowski (1884-1942)
Clifford Geertz (1926-2006)
Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-?)
13
http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=pPY7EaSN9pA
14. AUDIENCE RESEARCH:
ETHNOGRAPHY
‘At the heart of ethnography is the act of
observing and listening to people as they go
about their everyday lives in order that we can
understand the way they behave or think on
their own terms’
(Machin, 2002: 1)
Apply ethos of the paradigm to media use
14
15. AUDIENCE RESEARCH:
ETHNOGRAPHY
‘This can be contrasted with the process of either
theorising about the reasons for a particular
behaviour or composing a questionnaire, and
therefore asking the subjects of our research to
respond to a set of assumptions that we have
already made about why they behave in a
particular way’
(Machin, 2002: 1)
15
16. HSBC ‘LOCAL BANK’ ADS
Important to know the local context of the
brand, or how it is being understood
Launch:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JK_NinOmFWw
Pets:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9bVCj9Ayxc8
Eels:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6_WAmt3cMdk
16
18. EXPLAIN BEHAVIOUR
Everyday life appears natural
Governed by socially constructed rules
Majority of people abide by them
Different (sub) cultures may function differently
18
19. DIFFERENT TYPE OF RESEARCH
Questionnaire survey
Excellent for gathering socio-economic data
Limited scope; ‘closed’ questions
19
20. FRAMING THE QUESTIONS
Responses to questions are often contextual
How questions are framed can determine answer
How responses are measured can also shape
results
20
21. PROBLEMATIC FRAMING
A set of assumptions that we’ve already
made?
Typical questions asked can skew the results:
Eg:
“Do you support the attempt by the USA & UK to
bring freedom and democracy to other places in the
world?”
Or
“Do you support the unprovoked military action by
the USA?”
21
22. DIFFERENT TYPE OF RESEARCH
Open ended questions
Interviewees expand on points
Interviewees might not know reasons why they behave
22
23. DIFFERENT TYPE OF RESEARCH
Focus groups
Group dynamic more ‘natural’
Unnatural environment; contrived discussions; little
control
23
24. CRITICISMS OF ETHNOGRAPHY
Scientific or rigorous?
Interpretive methodology (role of researcher)
Natural sciences vs Social sciences
Positivism via Descartes (see Ruddock, 2001)
Variables identified > isolated > measured
Standardized method of investigation
24
27. COMPARE ATTITUDES TOWARDS
TV/RADIO PROGRAMME
Identify audience variables
Income?
Attitudes?
Geography?
Age?
Create questionnaire
Collect responses
Assess patterns
All this assumes the veneer of distance and
scientific objectivity and neutrality. 27
- "Why are people going so crazy
over this, it's funny as hell”
- "It's boys being boys”
- “How can you possibly NOT find
this hilarious?”
28. GENERAL AUDIENCE RESEARCH ISSUES:
VALIDITY
Why would people lie?
Uncomfortable questions about personal life
How people present themselves & reality
Questionnaires = leap of faith
Emile Durkheim (1952) on low incidences of suicide
in Catholic countries
Ethnography paints a broader picture
28
29. GENERAL AUDIENCE RESEARCH ISSUES:
REPRESENTATIVENESS
Depends on when it is undertaken: sampling
Random sampling; Strategic random sampling
Targeted sampling; Quota sampling
Size of group (is more better?)
Large samples difficult to analyse (low validity)
Presumptions of researcher?
Broad samples not suited to specific tasks (eg.,
Star Trek fans)
Ethnography is representative of those taking
part in study
29
30. GENERAL AUDIENCE RESEARCH ISSUES:
RELIABILITY
Should the research be repeatable?
Rigid methodology
Methods suited to individualistic responses?
Ethnography is adaptive
Ethnography as too interpretive?
30
31. Describes the quality of
phenomena
Is primarily inductive –
builds theory
Uses text based data
derived from observations,
interviews and elicitation
Focus of study is localized
Unit of analysis is usually
larger than the individual
Usually uses universal or
selective sampling
Emphasizes validity
Uses case-
study/continuous
assessment design in
interventions
Measures the quantity of
phenomena
Is primary deductive –
tests theory
Uses numerical data based
on quantification
Focus of study is local,
national or international
Unit of analysis is usually
the individual
Randomizes sampling
procedures
Emphasizes reliability and
generalizability
Uses experimental or
quasi-experimental design
in a controlled settings
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
31
Source: Jean J. Schensul, 2005:
http://cira.med.yale.edu/events/mbseminars/mbs070705.pdf
32. CONCLUSION
Heisenberg’s ‘Uncertainty principle’
‘What we observe is not nature itself, but nature
exposed to our method of questioning’
(1958, Physics and Philosophy)
32
33. CONCLUSION
Numerous reasons for audience research
No approach is 100% accurate despite claims
Quantitative (statistical) research is useful
starting point
Qualitative (interpretive) research builds on this
33
37. USEFUL READING
Ien Ang, 1991, Desperately Seeking the Audience. London: Routledge.
Werner Heisenberg, 1958, ‘Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in
Modern Science’, Lectures delivered at University of St. Andrews,
Scotland, Winter 1955-56, available
http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/ge/heisen
b3.htm
Shaun Moores, 1993, Interpreting Audiences, London: Sage.
(recommended reading: full text)
David Machin, 2002, Ethnographic Research for Media Studies,
London: Arnold (one chapter on WebCT)
Virginia Nightingale & Karen Ross, 2004, Media and Audiences: New
Perspectives. Buckingham: Open University Press (chapter 2).
Andy Ruddock, 2001, Understanding Audiences: Theory & Method,
London: Sage
Sue Stoessl, 1998, “Audience feedback: administrative research of
audiences”, in A. Briggs and P. Cobley (eds.) The Media: An
Introduction. London: Longman. 37