No Place For A Black Man

The Effects of Racism and Discrimination on
the Mental Health of African American
Males

Rogers W. Gardner II

07/07/09 1

Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
on
Racism
There is nothing more dangerous than to
build a society with a large segment of
people in that society who feel that they
have no stake in it; who feel that they have
nothing to lose. People who have a stake in
their society, protect that society, but when
they don't have it, they unconsciously want
to destroy it.

07/07/09 2

Agenda
 African American Culture
 Slavery

 Segregation

 Civil Rights

 Values and Customs
 Religion
 Perceptions and Stereotypes
 Myths versus Reality
 Blacks in the Media

07/07/09 3

Agenda Continued
 Cultural Traits
 Poor, Middles and Upper Class
 Family
 Cultural Identity
 Self Perception
 Education
 Language
 Complacency versus Ambition

07/07/09 4

Agenda Continued
 The Mental Health of African American
Males
 The Effects of Racism

 Low Self-Esteem

 Depression

 Violence

 The Effects of Discrimination

 Counseling Challenges

 Conclusion/Summary

 Recommendations

 Resources

07/07/09 5

Males

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07/07/09 http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/aaohtml/aohome.html 6

Males
Issues associated
with racism and
discrimination
has a direct
correlation to the
mental health,
and positive self
perception
of the African
American male.

07/07/09 7

No Place for A Black Man: The Effects of Racism
and Discrimination on the Mental Health of African
American Males

Contemporary society has placed many
challenges on the African American male that
has had drastic effects on their cultural
development. Many African American men are
struggling to overcome the external stressors
that dictate the type of educational
opportunities, health care and, employment
services available to this community.
07/07/09 8

No Place for A Black Man: The Effects of Racism
and Discrimination on the Mental Health of African
American Males
Many of theses external stressors have created a
negative perception of educational institutions,
displaced emphasis on learning and devalue
academic achievement in the Black community.
The media promotes negative images of African
Americans as uneducated hoodlums who use non-
Standard English. According to Al-Kaleem (2001),
prior to 1969 the media covered African Americans
as if they did not live normal lives.

07/07/09 9

The African American Culture:
Past, Present and Future


(Slavery)
African Americans were taken from their
homeland and brought to America as slaves.
Slaves were stripped from their native lands
but held on to their individual cultures,
languages and customs. Naturally, the white
slaveholders did not want the slave to embrace
their cultures, languages and customs so, the
slaves developed other means to communicate
and celebrate their culture. One such way was
to tell stories and the singing of songs
(Asante, 2005).

07/07/09 11
http://search.yahoo.com/search?fr=slv1-&p=slavery+images

(Segregation)
Before the Civil War a large percentage of
African
Americans were slaves and there was not
a need
for segregation. Segregation became the
rule in
the South after the Civil war. The small
percentage
of free blacks prior to the civil war faced
the many
faucets of segregation which included
exclusion
from schools, theaters, taverns, and other
public places.

07/07/09 12

(Segregation)
Several laws were passed that limited the rights of
blacks, placed limitations on black occupations, property
ownership, and vagrancy laws under which blacks could be
forced to work for whites if they were considered
unemployed. Laws were also used to segregate the
schools, and the justice system. These laws or
“Black Code” successfully prevented the newly freed slaves
from improving their status in society (Asante, 2005).

07/07/09 13

(Civil Rights)
Challenges to segregation and its stressors
became more successful after the civil war.
During the peak of the Civil Rights Movement,
Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and
the Voting Rights Act of 1965, guaranteeing basic
civil rights for all Americans (
www.eeoc.gov/policy/vii.html), regardless of race,
after nearly a decade of nonviolent protests and
marches,
ranging from the 1955-1956 Montgomery bus
boycott to the student-led sit-ins of the 1960s to
the huge March on Washington in 1963.

07/07/09 14
http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=civil+rights+images&ei=UTF-8&fr=slv1-&fl=0&x=wrt

Values and Customs
The African American culture is so diverse
and has so many subcultures that it is
difficult to list and define them all
(Asante, 2005).

07/07/09 15
http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=hip+hop+pictures&ei=UTF-8&fr=slv1-&rs=more

Values and Customs
(Religion)
Religion has been an intriguing part of the African
American culture since the days of slavery and it is
still a dominant part of the culture. Sue and Sue
(2003) commented that spirituality and religion
play an important role in many African American
families and provide comfort in the face of
oppression and economic support. There was a
time when all they had was family, which included
the community as a whole and the church.

07/07/09 16

Values and Customs
(Religion)

Many male members of Baptist churches held key
positions. In todays’ Baptist churches the number
of African American males serving in the positions of
Deacon, Elder and Trustee is at an all time low
(Powell, 2005).

07/07/09 17
http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?p=black+pastors&ei=UTF-8&fr=slv1-&fl=0&x=wrt

Perceptions and Stereotypes


(Myth versus Reality)
There are basic stereotypical
perceptions held about people
from virtually every race
(Smith, 2005). African
American people are
characterized as being
aggressive and athletic, while
German people are viewed as
being industrious and studious
(Smith, 2005).
07/07/09 19

(Myth versus Reality)
When a small percentage of a given culture
confirms a particular stereotype, the perception
is validated in the minds of others (Smith, 2005).
Additionally, many people believe that when
faced with individuals who fit a preconceived
notion that is held about a particular race, one
will expect the individual to have other
characteristics that are also stereotypical of that
race (Smith, 2005).

07/07/09 20
http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?p=blacks+and+stereotypes&ei=UTF-8&fl=0&qp_p=blacks+stereotypes&imgsz=all&fr=slv1-&b=61

(Blacks in the Media)
Junne, (1996) suggests that early African Americans
attempted to re-shape the perception of African
Americans but the status held by many “Blacks” due to
slavery made it extremely difficult.

07/07/09 21


The media has played a critical role in
perpetuating the effects of historical
oppression and in contributing to African-
Americans' continuing status as second-class
citizens (Balkaran, 1999).

07/07/09 22


The continuation of negative media coverage and its portrayal of African
Americans has diluted white Americas understanding of African Americans
and their culture (Balkaran, 1999).

07/07/09 23

Cultural Traits


Cultural Traits
(Poor, Middle and Upper Class)

Identifying a particular class in the Black community is difficult and
confusing. One can not use the same standards to determine class among
the white majority as you would for African Americans (Warren, 2005).
Warren (2005) argues that there is no black equivalent to the white
upper class “captains of corporations”. Additionally Warren states that an
African American who runs a black insurance company is not the same as a
Caucasian American who runs a Ford Motor company.

07/07/09 25

Cultural Traits
(Family)
The extended family and kin is a critical component of the
African American community that are usually over looked by society.
Society tends to focus on the negative images and perceptions of
black families.
According to a presentation given by Dr. Oscar Barbarin, African
American families have about 70 different family structures
compared to about 40 different structures among white families.
The comparison highlights some important characteristics of the
African American family structure and how the family structure
contributes to the development of not only Black males but the entire
African American community (Barbarin, 2002).

07/07/09 26

Cultural Traits
(Family)
The African American family usually demands strict behavioral standards and
uses
physical discipline. Barbarin (2002) believes the cultural strictness among
African Americans is balanced within a context of strong support and affection.
African American males receive their cues from older males who handle the
disciplinary action in the family and if the biological father is not in the home,
African American children have contact with uncles, male cousins, and other males
in the community (Barbarin, 2002).

07/07/09 27

Cultural Traits
(Cultural Identity)
Thomas and Weinrach, (2002) suggest that no analysis is complete
with addressing the issue of race and it influence on cultural
identity.

Sue and Sue (2003) suggest that minorities go through a sequential process of
racial identity or consciousness. Sue and Sue (2003) also states that this process
for African Americans, involves a transformation from a non-Afrocentric identity
to one that is Afrocentic.

07/07/09 28

Cultural Traits
(Cultural Identity)
In an article titled, The Cultural Mistrust, Ethnic Identity,
Racial Identity, and Self-Esteem among Ethnically
Diverse Black University Students, Gerard, Phelps, and
Taylor, (2001) wrote in “The study of African American
racial identity has a long and sometimes disturbing history
in American psychology.
The concept of racial identity has been used to both
denigrate and exult the ways in which African Americans as
a community have coped with the impact of systematic
oppression in America (Gerard et al, 2001).

07/07/09 29

Cultural Traits
(Cultural Identity)
Sue & Sue (2003), discusses Cross’s Black identity
development model. This model walks an individual
through different stages of cultural identity and
development. The beginning of this model highlights an individual as
identifying with predominate cultural values/beliefs and transitions to a
realization of who and what they are.

The next phases are an acceptance and eventual pride in
the African American race (Sue and Sue, 2003). Members
begin to accept their own cultural values and beliefs and
identify with their own race. Counselors have to be able to
identify the development stage of a client in order to
render effective services.

07/07/09 30

Cultural Traits
(Cultural Identity)
The counselor also needs to understand the
developmental process in order to create an
effective counseling strategy. The
development models provide a frame of
reference for counselors who are not
familiar with many minority cultures.

+ =
07/07/09 31

Cultural Traits
(Self Perceptions)
White Americas perception of the African American male
has caused many to buy into the myths and stereotypes
used to describe African American men.
It is easy to buy into a Black male being a criminal, drug
addict or gang member when he is being portrayed as
subhuman. In an article titled Why most Black think O.J is
innocent, Sut Jhally, (2005) commented that the images
presented by the media turns real and complex human
beings into crude one-dimensional caricatures, which then
come to define minority populations for the majority.

07/07/09 32

Cultural Traits
(Educations)
Over the last 31 years this writer has been continuously
bombarded with stories and statistics presenting the
achievement of African American males as less than
desirable.
Powell (2005), states that many Black males achieves
score that are significantly lower than their peers in the
“inner city” public schools across the nation. The Black
male achieves significantly lower then other students. This
trends leads to the categorizing of African American youth.
Subsequently, many of the young African-American males
are guided into special education programs.

07/07/09 33

Cultural Traits
(Educations)
In an article titled African-Americans Still Face
Discrimination in Schools, Yvette Owo (2004)
wrote “Students can be designated as special
education students based on four criteria: mental
retardation, specific learning disability, emotional
instability or health impairment. Of the four, only
mental retardation is objective, considered to be
an IQ below 70. The other three, however, are
highly subjective and - not coincidentally - are the main
justifications for placing African-American males in special
education classes”.

07/07/09 34

Cultural Traits
(Language)
African American youth imitate the attitudes, behavior and
improper use of the English language presented by the
media. Children become attuned to use of language early in life.
Parents need to be aware of the slang terms and sloppy English used
in the home as the parent-teacher. Bertels (2003), suggest that the
speech habits of African American in the class room are often a matter
of social class rather than race. Furthermore, African American children
from middle-class families are more likely to adopt ‘black slang’ which
is that is drastically different from the language or speech pattern of
poor African American students (Bertels, 2003).

07/07/09 35

Cultural Traits
(Complacency versus Ambition)
Many of the African American males are
being portrayed as individuals who lack a
sense of purpose. If this concept is allowed
to be transferred onto the psyche of the
African American male community, it can
turn into a negative attitude that destroys
their inner drive/ambition (Bertels, 2003).

07/07/09 36

The Mental Health of African
American Males


American Males
(The Effects of Racism)
Racism affects the mental health of
African American males by destroying
their self esteem and portraying them as
subhuman to the American public. This
negative portrayal can cause external
stressor form other cultures and that can
directly affect the mental health and
mental health services offered to this
community (Bertels, 2003).

07/07/09 38

American Males
(Low Self-Esteem)
There are three major paradigms that has have
been used to examine personal self-esteem of
African Americans (Phelps et al, 2001). These
paradigms include theory of social evaluation,
locus of control, and socialization and strength of
community. Findings in this area suggest that
African Americans' personal self-esteem is no
lower than the personal self-esteem of Whites
(Phelps et al, 2001).

07/07/09 39

American Males
(Depression)
Many African Americans do not consider
depression to be a mental disorder that affects
the African American community. Some
members of the Black community believe that
individuals who are suffering from depression
are in line to take medication that induces a slow
mental state. In an article titled Depression
Should Not Be a Dirty Word, Stephanie L. Ogle
writes, “Depression does not discriminate based
on age, sex, color or social/economic status.

07/07/09 40

American Males
(Depression)
Depression also comes in various forms &
may not be easily detected initially.
Throughout history, African-Americans have
been improperly & under- diagnosed in
regards to depression yet have been over-
diagnosed when it comes to schizophrenia
(Phelps et al, 2001).

07/07/09 41

American Males
(Alcohol leads to Violence)
Alcohol can be attributed to many negative African
American stereotypes the self-perception and
mental health of the African American community.
This community houses more alcohol/Liquor stores
than their white counterparts in other
communities. Several Black leaders have
addressed the issue of alcohol being heavily
advertised by television and radio stations in
African American communities.

07/07/09 42

American Males
(The Effects of Discrimination)
The African American general
populace does
not control the attitudes, beliefs or
perceptions society has of “Black
America”.
A critical aspect in understanding
African
Americans discrimination is to
realize that
those individual considered as
lower-lower
class African American have
become the
stereotypical image all blacks in
America.

07/07/09 43

American Males
African Americans stand out as the most
visible minority group in America. The
problems experienced by African Americans
due to “Black” characteristics such as skin
color are used as to determine quality.
These same characteristics are used to
determine the quality of housing, service, and
products (Broman, Jackson and Neighbors,
2001).

07/07/09 44

American Males
Separate, inferior school buildings
existed for most of the century, and
even today, the issue of adequate state
support for Historically Black Colleges
and Universities (HBCUs) is couched in
Proposition 209-type terms that such
support will be a drain on public
resources
(http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/soc/
355lect11.htm).

07/07/09 45

Counseling Challenges
According to Sue and Sue (2003) interpersonal
challenges deal with relationships between the
client and counselor, and intrapersonal challenges
deals with an individual’s ability to know his/her
own values/beliefs. Many minorities tend to have
issues that are classified as interpersonal
challenges. Sue and Sue comment (2003)
comment that therapist may often respond to the
culturally diverse client in a very stereotypical manner and
fail to recognize within-group or individual differences.

07/07/09 46

The stereotypical attitudes and belief may
create barriers to an effective client
therapist relationship, communication and
counseling strategy. Many minorities do not
trust Euro-American counselors due to
established cultural norms and behaviors
past and present (Sue and Sue, 2003).

07/07/09 47

Counselors have to be able to identify the
development stage of a client in order to
render effective services. The counselor also
needs to understand the development
process in order to create an effective
counseling strategy.

07/07/09 48

Counselors/clients need to have a self
awareness of personal beliefs in order to be
an effective participant in the counseling
process and to provide meaningful
feedback. Without this awareness a
counselor will not be able to see past
personal stereotypes and be an instrument
of change to the client.

07/07/09 49


The American Counseling Association
section A.2.b, states that counselors will
actively attempt to understand the diverse
cultural backgrounds of the clients with
whom they work. This includes, but is not
limited to; learning how the counselor's own
cultural/ethnic/racial identity impacts her or his
values and beliefs about the counseling process.

07/07/09 50

Conclusion/Summary
Many African American men are struggling
to overcome the external stressors that
dictate the type of educational
opportunities, health care and, employment
services available to this community.

07/07/09 51

Conclusion/Summary
Black parents must raise their young Black boys to be men
who have a strong cultural foundation that foster a positive
self image. Young African American boys must be educated
on the fundamental principles, such as education and
spiritual morality that have produced strong Black men in
our past. The African American community must demand
the very best from their black men while the black male is
being supported by the black community.
The issues presented in this presentation have a direct
correlation to the mental health, and positive self
perception of the African American male.

07/07/09 52

Recommendations
Research provided in this essay, suggest
that it is critical for the African American
community to ensure it provides its male
members with access to health insurance,
support networks, health care facilities and
counselors who understand the African
American culture and language.

07/07/09 53

Recommendations
It is also recommended that the African American
community educate its males on principles, such
as education and spiritual morality. Educating
African American males on education and it
importance ensures young African-American males
are equipped to succeed in public school systems,
colleges and universities.
The importance of education should be viewed
as a positive and empowering experience.

07/07/09 54

Recommendations
Steps should be taken to ensure young
African American children are properly
assessed and monitored before being placed
into special education programs.

07/07/09 55

Recommendations
Additionally, African Americans should create and
utilize programs/activities that provided a sense of
accomplishment and pride. The programs/activities
are intended to build the self esteem and
confidence of African American males. This
recommendation also provides for healthier
personal relationships and self perception. The
activities would allow the Black male to see how
his actions affect his life and the lives of those
around him.

07/07/09 56

Recommendations
It is also recommended that adult African
American males take on a more active role in
the
growth and development of young African
American males. The self-perception and
esteem
of young Black men are affected by the
interactions and behavior of the black male role
model.
An African American males’ relationship with
his
father heavily influences his personal
development, growth and personality.

07/07/09 57

Recommendations
Additionally, African American males
should
join an African American or Historically
black
fraternity. This provides an outlet for males
to associate with professional or like
individuals while providing an opportunity
to
participate and socialize in cultural and
professional activities.

07/07/09 58

Recommendations
African Americans should seek out counseling
opportunities and take advantage of mental health
resources. Additionally, Blacks should research a
counselor’s cultural and professional background. African
American should be aware of current issues and promote
counseling the Black community. Informing this community
that culturally skilled counselors possess knowledge and
understanding about how oppression, racism
discrimination, and stereotyping affect them personally and
in their work can help to foster an effective client/therapist
relationship (Arredondo, 1999).

07/07/09 59

No Place for A Black Man: The Effects of Racism and
Discrimination on the Mental Health of African American
Males

07/07/09
It’s time for a Change 60

Where to Get More Information
Al-Kaleem, K. (2001). Television News Images of African
Americans and Their Effects on Self-Esteem. University of Maine at
Augusta

Arredondo, P. (1999). Multicultural Counseling Competencies
As Tools To Address Oppression and Racism. Journal of Counseling
and Development, Vol 77 Issue 1 p102

Asante, M.K. (2005). Contours of the African American
Culture. Retrieved March 12, 2005, from (
http://www.africawithin.com/asante/contours.htm)

B. Smith (personal communication, March 10, 2005)

07/07/09 61

Bertels, R. (2003). Leaving No Child Behind. Retrieved
March 08, 2005, from (
http://www.dailytexanonline.com/news/2004/04/30/Opinion/AfricanAmericans.Stil
)

Balkaran, S. (1999) Mass Media and Racism. The Yale Political Quarterly. New
Haven, CT

Broman, C.L., Jackson, J.S., & Neighbors, H.W. (2001).
Racial Group Identification Among Black Adults. University of North Carolina
Press

Day-Hairston, B.O., & Day-Vines, N.L. (2005). Culturally
Congruent Strategies for Addressing the Behavioral Needs of Urban, African
Male Adolescents. Professional School Counseling, Vol 8, Issue 3, p236, 8p

07/07/09 62

Gerald, P.A, Phelps, R.E., & Taylor, J.D. (2001). Cultural
Mistrust, Ethnic Identity, Racial Identity, and Self-
Esteem Among Ethnically Divers Black University Students. Journal
of Counseling and Development

Herilhy, B., & Corey, G. (1996). ACA Ethical Standards
Casebook. Alexandria VA: American Counseling Association.

J. Banks (personal communication, Feb 26, 2005)

Jhally, S. (2005). Why Most Blacks Think O.J. Is Innocent.
Retrieved March 01, 2005, from
(http://www.sutjhally.com/onlinepubs/oj.html)

07/07/09 63

Junne, G. (1996). Blacks and the Media. University of Northern
Colorado

Linstead, S., Hopfl, H. (2002). Culture and Organization. Taylor &
Francis Ltd

O. Barbarin (personal communication, March 09, 2005)

Owo, Y. (2004). African-Americans Still Face Discrimination in Schools.
University of Texas at Austin

Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2003). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory
and practice. (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

07/07/09 64

T. Powell (personal communication, March 12, 2005)

Thomas, R.K., Weinrach, S.G. (2002). A Critical Analysis of
the Multicultural Counseling Competencies: Implications fro the Practice of
Mental Health Counseling. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, Volume
24,Number 1, pg 20-35

U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (1997,
Jan 15). Retrieved March 11, 2005, from
http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/vii.html

Understanding Discrimination Against African Americans.
(Jan 6, 2004) Retrieved March 7, 2005, from
http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/soc/355lect11.htm

07/07/09 65

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