This document discusses various concepts related to media ideology. It begins by defining ideology and explaining how Marxist theorists view it as a tool used by the powerful to distort and misrepresent reality. It then examines how ideology relates to media studies and how media texts reflect certain values and worldviews. Several normative approaches to understanding media ideology are explored, including authoritarian, libertarian, and social responsibility theories. Specific cases like Rupert Murdoch's media ownership and the role of media in promoting the Iraq war are analyzed to show how ideology functions and can be manipulated in practice.

1. Media Ideology and Power
Muhammad Awais.
Roll No. 11
M.Phil. Communication studies
Research Track
2015-17
ICS, University of the Punjab Lahore.

2. What is ideology…
 It is a complicated term. Sometimes it is insult to call someone an
‘ideological’.
 But when Marxist speak of ideology, it means it is the race of power by
distorting or misrepresenting the reality.
 A set of beliefs or principles, especially one on which a political system,
group, party, or organization is based (i.e. socialist or capitalist,
communism, racism, feminism ideology).
 Karl Marx explained about the ideology of creating reality by bourgeoisie
(owners of production) against the proletariat ‘have nots’.
 Ideologies that are told to us repeatedly by important social institutions
such as the Mosques, the law, education, government, and the media are
called dominant ideologies.
Ideology. Retrieved from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ideology. Retrieved on 2015, December 26.
Media and Ideology. Retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/5239_Croteau_Chapter_5.pdf. Retrieved on 2015, December 07.
Ideology. Retrieved from http://media-studies.tki.org.nz/Teaching-media-studies/Media-concepts/Ideology. Retrieved on 2015, December 05.

3. How ideology relates to media studies…
 Ideology in media is defined here as a system of ideals and values perpetuated through
media (Ton. 2015).
 Media texts always reflect certain values or ideologies though sometimes we may not
be aware of this. For example in some texts, such as action films like the Die Hard or the
Lethal Weapon series, solving problems with force is seen as an acceptable value and
reflects a certain ideology.
 When studying a media text you may look for the ideology present and question whose
world view is represented and which group(s) and their associated world view(s) have
not been represented.
Ideology. http://media-studies.tki.org.nz/Teaching-media-studies/Media-concepts/Ideology. 2015, December 05
Ton. A.S . 2015. Ideology in media (slide no.3). Retrieved from https://www.haikudeck.com/ideology-in-media-uncategorized-presentation-0agfCylUk4. retrieved on 20th December 2015.

4.  Hall (n.k) says that the media are engaged in the “politics of signification,”
in which they produce particular narratives that give events certain
meanings.
 That is to say, they do not simply “reflect” the world they “re-present,” it by
engaging practices that define reality.
 Studies show that when Israel does commit atrocities, they are often
justified by western news outlets, and sometimes altogether suppressed.
 The representation of Arab culture in Hollywood films present Arab people
as barbarian, cruel, robbers, monsters, beater of women, narrow minded,
fundamentalist etc.
Hall.S. (n.k). Stuart Hall and Cultural Studies: Decoding Cultural Oppression. Retrieved from http://www.corwin.com/upm-data/13286_Chapter_2_Web_Byte__Stuart_Hall.pdf. Retrieved on 2015, December 07.
Stereotyping And Misrepresentation Of Arab Muslim Women Cultural Studies Essay. Retrieved from http://www.ukessays.com/essays/cultural-studies/stereotyping-and-misrepresentation-of-arab-muslim-women-
cultural-studies-essay.php. Retrieved on 1st January 2016
Studies continually show strong pro-Israel bias in western media. Retrieved fromhttp://www.middleeasteye.net/columns/studies-continually-show-strong-pro-israel-bias-western-media-
881718416. retrieved on 28 December 2015.

5. Media Ideology and Power…
 To understand the power of media, we have an example of “War of the
World”.
 Key theoretical area underlying the study of ideology is the idea of
Hegemony.
 Hegemony is not simply about ideological domination or forcible
imposition of views on people. It involves winning their consent through a
type of cultural leadership.
 The commodification of culture, Mckdonaldization and Americanization
are resulted from a particular ideology of media.
Welles scares nation. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/welles-scares-nation. Retrieved on 2016, January 1st.
Media and Ideology. Retrieved from http://jclass.umd.edu/classes/cpsp222/Media%20and%20Ideology%281%29.ppt. retrieved on January 1st, 2016.

6. Normative Approaches to understand
media ideology…
Authoritarian ideology. They eat authors…
 All forms of communications are under the control of the governing elite or
authorities or influential bureaucrats to protect the people .
 Criticizing government programs undermines the peace.
 During WWII Hitler and Mussolini used media to propagate and press
couldn’t question against or publish against these two dictators.
 But social media has made the picture complex to understand it. Though
there was an authoritarian media in Arab countries but in ‘Arab Spring’,
people use social media to take part in social change.
Omidyar, P. 2014. Social Media: Enemy of the State or Power to the People?. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/social-media-arab-spring/ 26 December 2015
Authoritarian Theory. http://communicationtheory.org/authoritarian-theory/. Retrieved on 29th December 2015.

7. Libertarian Ideology.
 Uplift all laws and ethical considerations from the practice and
Libertarian media will be yielded.
 Freedom of press will give more freedom to media to reveal the real
things happening in the society without any censorship or any authority
blockades.
 Ignores need for reasonable control of media.
 Libertarian ideology of media sees people more enough to find and
judge good ideas from bad.
 Free marketplace of ideas and people will follow the efficient argument.
 Bill of rights
Bill of rights. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/bill-of-rights. Retrieved on 1st January 2016
WikiLeaks. Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/wikileaks. Retrieved on 7th January 2016.
Marketplace of ideas. Retrieved from http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Fall99/Wolff/FMP1.HTM. Retrieved on 25th December 2015.
Libertarian theory. Retrieved from http://communicationtheory.org/libertarian-theory/ Retrieved on 21st December 2015

8. Social Responsible ideology of Media…
 This ideology came due to the drawbacks of libertarian media.
 “Your right to swing your fist ends where my nose begins.” (Oliver Wendell Holmes,
Jr. 1894).
 Libertarian ideology only consider the active audience.
 People who believe media should be controlled couldn’t reach any agreement who
should be in charge or what should be the method (i.e. Cognoscenti of their own
bamboozlement (Baran. p-77).
 In absolute liberty, the enemies also have chances to propagate.
 Freedom of the press should not be absolute: it should be responsible to society
(Surrur. 2007).
 There is no room to report Sikandar hostile behavior live in social responsible
ideology.
A quote. http://celestethebest.tumblr.com/post/17720871175/your-right-to-swing-your-fist-ends-where-my-nose retrieved on January 1st, 2016.
Social Responsibility Theory. Retrieved from http://communicationtheory.org/social-responsibility-theory/. Retrieved on January 1st. 2016
Surur. F,A. 2007. Press freedom is not absolute as it is limited with responsibility. Retrieved from http://www.arabwestreport.info/en/year-2003/week-12/2-dr-ahmed-fathi-
surur-press-freedom-not-absolute-it-limited-responsibility Retrieved on January 1st. 2-16
Baran. S, J, Davis, D, K. 2010. Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment and Future. Cengage Learning. p.77

9. Soviet-Communist Ideology…
 It emerged from Marxist, Leninist, and Stalinist thoughts after the 17th
century.
 State owns or in some way controls all forms of mass media directly.
 Media reports less on the bad things that happen under communism and
emphasizes the bad things that happen in democratic areas.
 Pravda: “Communism is good” by praising Stalin’s non-aggression pact
with Hitler but avoid reporting Chernobyl disaster because it may raise
concerns about the Soviet Nuclear Plant (Gabby, 2012).
 North Korean, China and Russian media are based on communist
ideology.
From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.
Gabby.T. 2012. Introduction to Four Theories of the Press. Retrieved from (https://epiclawyers.wordpress.com/introduction-to-four-theories-of-the-press/) on 27 December 2015.
Communism. Retrieved from www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/c/Communism.htm. Retrieved on December 28th. 2015.)

10. Lenin identified three Roles of Press..
 Propagandist
Example: Radio and world war II.
 Agitator
 Anna Hazare and Indian media. Dharna and Pakistani media.
 Hutu vs. Tutsi Conflict and the role of media.
 Organizer
Pakistan media’s use of patriotism and sympathy
appeals after December 16, 2014.
Where to Begin? Retrieved from https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1901/may/04.htm. retrieved on 7 December 2015.
The Role of Media as Agitation. Retrieved from https://storify.com/Daisi426/t. retrieved on December 28th 2015.
Tribune: Sep 19th 2014

11. Ownership and Media Ideology…
 Owners or their appointed top executives have final say in what the organizations does.
 Nixon and Jones (1956) concluded that difference in quality is due to the competence of
owners and operators of a newspapers.
 Researches found that similar media with different owners vary in their content.
 In 1980 the ownership of 3 big TV networks changed and widely covered.
 Los Angles Times’ publisher was republican and helped Richard Nixon throughout his
career.
 Media conglomerates: 1983, 50 corporations but in 1987, Ban Bagdikian reported in his
book that 29 corporations control most of the media business. By 2004 media ownership
was concentrated in seven corporations. Five mammoth firms, now dominate the world
media namely Times Warner Inc. Bertelsmann AG (West Germany). News Corporation Ltd
(Murdoch’s Australia based firm). Hachette SA (France). Capital Cities/ABC Incorporation.
Nixon, R.B & Jones, R.L. 1956. Concentration of press ownership and comparison. Journalism quartely. 48
Nixon Targeted The Times, Tapes Show. Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/1997-03-22/news/mn-40969_1_otis-chandler. Retrieved on 28the Decemebr 2015.
Bagdikean. B. 2004. The New Media Monopoly: The Big Five. Beacon Press

12. Ownership and internal slant…
 Donohew (1967) found a direct positive relationship between a publisher’s
attitude toward an issue and in the newspaper publishing.
 Chain vs Independent : Group owned media channels broadcasts more
news than those that are not group owned.
 Bagdikean: when chains take over paper, increase in ads and its rates,
reduces serious news which is more expensive to gather and hire less
qualified journalists.
 Thrift (1977) found that chain newspapers published fewer argumentative
editorials, fewer editorials on local matters and fewer on controversial
topics than independent papers.
Donohew, L. et al. 1967. Content analysis of communications. New York: Macmillan.
Bagdikian. B. 2004, The Media Monopoly Ch. 4.
Thrift, R. (1977). How chain Ownership Affects Editorial Vigor of Newspapers. Journalism Quarterly, 54(2), 327-331.

13. Rupert Murdoch: A Case Study
He is considered a s the most notorious journalist in
America.
Rupert Murdock bought Chicago Sun Times and made
it sensationalistic like in New York Post and Boston
Herald. This influence the management and columnist
like Ellen Goodman and Garry Wells and forced them
to resign (Tuccille 1989).
He used his British Newspaper The Sun and The Times
of London to support P.M Margret Thatcher. Same
was done before selling New York Post in 1988 in
favor of Ronald Reagan.
Tuccille, J. 1989. Rupert Murdoch: Creator of a Worldwide Media Empire. New York. D. I. Fine. P-105-130
Rupert Murdoch. Encyclopedia. Retrieved from www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Rupert_Murdoch.aspx retrieved on 22nd December 2015.

14. Media Ideology and Agenda Setting…
 ‘Agenda setting’ enables the media to create pictures in our head. People
react to pictures in their head instead of actual events(Anderson, K. 2012).
 Media and the press filter and shape reality rather than reflect it (Marie. A
lesson 9).
 It is the ideology which required to set the agenda to be implemented.
 Agenda setting therefore results in cultural hegemony. The basic principles
of capitalism – private enterprise, profit, the free market and the rights of
property ownership – dominate media content and are presented as
‘normal’ and ‘natural’.
Anderson, K. (2012). Agenda Setting Theory and Ideology. Retrieved date, 2015 December 22. Retrieved from
https://prezi.com/7uhrwn_myyhy/agenda-setting-theory-and-ideology/
Marie, A. (n.k). Agenda Setting: Definition, Function, Process & Examples. Chapter 9, Lesson 18. Retrieved date 15, December 2015. Retrived from
http://study.com/academy/lesson/agenda-setting-definition-function-process-examples.html.

15. Engineering consent and the war in
Iraq: A case study
 Through the media Saddam Hussain was portrayed as terrorist who was
producing the nuclear weapons which was a threat to Americans.
 For bureaucratic reasons we settled on one issue, weapons of mass
destruction, because it was the one reason everyone could agree on (Black.
2003).
 Saddam Hussein is bad, the imagery of nuclear mushroom clouds, the links
between al-Qaida and Saddam and similar depiction of media had welcomed
the cost and the number of soldiers and troops needed (Rich. 2004, p-12).
 All the manufactured justifications were deception and dissolution.
 Tony Blaire (six years after the war) told BBC that Saddam Hussain’s presence
in the Middle East was enough of a threat to justify the war, but obviously you
would have had to use and deploy different arguments about the nature of the
threat (Ritchie, 2009).
Black, E. (2003). After Iraq, It’s a War of Words, Evidence; Was Arms Threat Exaggerated? Minneapolis Star-Tribune, June 8: 1A.
Rich, F. (2004). A Perfect Storm of Mind-Bending Pictures from Iraq. Providence Journal, 9: 12.
Ritchie, A. (2009). Blair Iraq War Admission Sparks Fresh Outrage. Yahoo News, December 13. (http://www.google.com/hostednews/
afp/article/ALeqM5jTebENCJbPdSLM1qftov5P0JhsvQ).

16. Steve Rendall and Tara Broughel (2003). "Amplifying Officials, Squelching Dissent". Extra! (Fairness and Accuracy In Reporting).
A FAIR study found that in the lead up to the Iraq War, most sources were overwhelmingly in favor of the
invasion…
What we spent on Iraq: http://cdn.theatlantic.com/static/mt/assets/business/What_We_Spent_On_Iraq_In_Context.JPG. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
Art feeling addvertising agency.2013. Iraq Media Profile 2012 13. http://www.slideshare.net/SarhadIAbdulbaqi/iraq-media-profile-2012-13 . Slide no.12. retrieved 1 january 2016

17. American media’s ideology before and after 9/11…
 If we compare two movies “Rambo III” and “American Sniper”, it can
be seen that the ideologies change in accord to perspective.
 “Taliban” … before 9/11, they were friends of US but after that top in
list of enemies.
 Before 9/11, Hollywood believed Afghanistan is a land of lions, the
people of Afghanistan are brave. They portrayed in such a way that
the enmity of Afghanistan and the poison of the snake results same.
 And they encouraged that Afghanistan people can defeat USSR.
 But after 9/11, they changed their ideology in accord to
battleground. The heroes in their films shoot people of Afghanistan
to head and says ‘Rest in Hell”.
 Study found that Bollywood movies have changed the religious
beliefs as well. 7% of the students of BZU believed that religion is
not mattered if you want to marry someone (Shabbir, 2015).
Shabbir R. 2015. Jab tak hai jaan: A case Study. BZU library (unpublished)

18. The Independent. Monday 6 December 1993 Daily News & New York Post. Monday May 2, 2011
That Time Ronald Reagan Hosted Those 'Freedom Fighters' At The Oval Office: The Business Insider

19. Media Ideology and Gatekeeping…
 Few countries blocked wiki leaks website from its
country to maintain the internal security because
the wiki leaks was not ready to compromise with
government censorship and releasing classified
documents against the government.
 In the era of radio propaganda, countries used
different techniques for the purpose of tackling it.
 All the rival news channels are banned from going
on air on cable in India and Pakistan.
 But the social media hindered the power of
gatekeeping.
http://professionaljobprep.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Gate-Keeper.gif. Retrieved 2 January 2015
Dube. R. 2012 5 Worst Examples Of The WikiLeaks Sites Banned Or Censored. http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/5-worst-examples-wikileaks-site-banned-censured/. retrieved 2 January
2016.
White, David Manning. (1964). "The 'Gatekeeper': A Case Study In the Selection of News, In: Lewis A. Dexter / David M. White (Hrsg.): People, Society and Mass Communications. London
160 - 172.

20. ‘Agents of Power’.
 Altschull worked for so many media organizations. During his professional
career, he was approached so many times by the inlfulentional persons
inside and outside the organization.
 He was forced to angle the stories of the victory of Adenaur’s 1957 in West
Germany as the victory over communism (Altschull, p-10).
 To expect that the news media will make a dramatic U-turn and scoff at
the wishes of the paymasters is to engage in the wildest kind of utopian
fantasies."
(Altschull, 1984, p. 299)
Altschull, J.H. 1984. Agents of Power: The role of the news media in human affairs. Longman Inc. Philadelphia. P-10

21.  All press systems are based on a belief in free expression -- although it is
defined in different ways.
 All systems endorse social responsibility and say that they serve the needs
and interests of the people and promise people access to media.
He also founds that journalism schools in each system transmit ideologies and value systems of the society in
which they exist and assist people in power in maintaining control of the media -- and that press practices
always differ from theory.
Common factors in all press models. http://hope.journ.wwu.edu/tpilgrim/j190/shoemakernew.html 28 December 2018.
After a review of press systems in 1995, he concluded that 3 models of the press
dominates…
1. Market (or capitalist) ideology
2. Communitarian (or socialist) ideology
3. Advancing (or developing countries’) ideology
3 models of press in the world. http://hope.journ.wwu.edu/tpilgrim/j190/shoemakernew.html 29 December 2016.

22. Market (or capitalist) model…
 Free marketplace of ideas.
 Absolute freedom in the market of ideas
disseminated by the media.
 Holds all the characteristics which libertarian
ideology have.
Implications…
 Globalization Results in cultural
imperialism. Western cultural products in
the world: Mcdonaldization, Nike, Coca etc.
 Hybridization and homoculturalization.
Commodifiaction of culture by media
 Coffee/Tea in the morning.
 Chines food, Mexican food,
dresses
 KFC culture.
 Cell phone use; media made all
of them our necessity.

23. Communitarian Model… not to be confused with Communism.
 Emphasizes the connection between media, individual and community.
 Article 29 of the 1948 Universal Declaration on Human Right: "Everyone
has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development
of his personality is possible". This should be seen as applying to the news
media as well.
 The communitarian role of the news media, is also grounds for its duties.
The news media is a member of the community either as a "legal person"
(a corporate entity) or by nature of the individual it is comprised of –
journalists, editors and publishers, photographers , which are all
community members. As a member of the community, the news media
bears certain duties towards other members (Roy. (n.k).
 The news media lives and grows in the heart of the community.
 Community radios. (Mahooli and gambling, Tamboli community and
butchers, Haiti Community radio).
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/. Retrieved date January 1st, 2016.
Roy. P. (n.k). https://communitariannetwork.org/sites/communitariannetwork.org/files/downloads/Communitarian%20Grounds%20for%20Media%20Duties.pdf. Retrieved on January 1st. 2016.
The 40 Best Little Radio Stations in the U.S. www.pastemagazine.com/.../the-best-little-radio-stations-in-the-us.html. Retrieved on December 29, 2015.

24. Advancing (or developing countries)
model…
 Not only in establishing and strengthening democracy, media can play an
effective role in developing an underdeveloped or under developing countries.
 Malthus theory and communication.
 Health issues.
 Wilbur Schram, E.M Rogers, Alan Chalkley, Juan Mercado and Daniel Learner
consider media as an engine to change from traditional to modern society.
 Denis McQuail's Theories.
Malthusian Theory of Population Growth. http://study.com/academy/lesson/malthusian-theory-of-population-growth-definition-lesson-quiz.html. Retrieved on December 28, 2015.
Development communication. http://download.nos.org/srsec335new/ch4.pdf. retrieved on December 22, 2015.

25. The Final Words…