2. Anatomical Etymology
• Anatomy- Science of the structure of body
• Greek ‘anatome’- ana – up, tome – cutting
• Latin ‘dissecare’ – dis – asunder, secare – cut
(dissection)
• Anatome = dissecare
• Study of Anatomy introduces students to
greater terminology
3. Anatomy is to Physiology, as Geography is
to History
Emphasis should be placed on the
Anatomy of living body
◦ Surface Anatomy
◦ Radiological Anatomy
Major divisions of Anatomy
◦ Gross
◦ Microscopic
◦ Embryology
◦ Neuroanatomy
4. • Anatomy may be studied systematically or
regionally (topographical)
• Body systems
– Name??
• Body topography
– ??
5. Rules Guiding etymology
• 1. Each structure shall be designated by one term
• 2. Every term in official list shall be in Latin
• 3. The term shall primarily be for memory signs
• 4. No usage of eponyms
7. • The body standing erect, facing forward,
feet together, toes pointed slightly apart,
hands at one’s side, palms facing forward.
• Once the body is in this position (or
imagined to be in this position,) the
positional terms can be used correctly.
8. Terms
• Medial/ lateral – nearer/away median plane
• Anterior/posterior – near front/near the back
• Superior/inferior – nearer the head/toe
– (cf, cranial/caudal/rostral)
• Proximal/ distal – limbs
• Internal and external – nearer/away from center of an
organ (cf, middle)
• Superficial/deep
• Supine/prone
• Ipsilateral/contralateral
9.
10. Terms of body movement
FLEXION: reduces the angle of the joint from the
anatomical position. Flex elbow
EXTENSION: movement that returns you to
anatomical position. Extend elbow.
◦ All these terms refer to either a body part or a joint.
HYPEREXTENSION: extension beyond anatomical
position; wrist, neck.
Some terms relate only to certain areas, such as the
ankle:
DORSIFLEXION: lift up toes
PLANTARFLEXION: move toes down
INVERSION: when sole of foot points inward
EVERSION: sole of foot points outward.
ABDUCTION: move body part away from midline;
arm, fingers, thumb
ADDUCTION: bring back to midline; arms, fingers,
thumb
11. ROTATION: pivot on an axis; shake head
“no”; can rotate head and shoulder
CIRCUMDUCTION: to draw a circle with
body part; shoulder, head
PRONATION (to lie prone is on stomach).
Turn hands downward.
SUPINATION: refers to arms; want a bowl of
soup, supinate
PROTRACTION: to move anteriorily;
shoulders, mandible
RETRACTION: to move part posteriorly;
shoulders
ELEVATION: to raise part superiorly;
shoulders
DEPRESSION: to lower part; open mouth.
12. Main areas to be studied
• Osteology and arthrology
• Myology
• Angiology
• Neurology
• Splanchnology
• Surface marking/ anatomy
14. Chapter Outline
• Cell theory
• Properties common to all cells
• Cell size and shape – why are cells so small?
• Eukaryotic cells
– Organelles and structure in all eukaryotic cell
• Cell junctions
15. History of Cell Theory
• mid 1600s – Anton van Leeuwenhoek
– Improved microscope, observed many living cells
• mid 1600s – Robert Hooke
– Observed many cells including cork cells
• 1850 – Rudolf Virchow
– Proposed that all cells come from existing cells
16. Cell Theory
1. All organisms consist of 1 or more cells.
2. Cell is the smallest unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
17. Observing Cells
• Light microscope
– Can observe living cells in true color
– Magnification of up to ~1000x
– Resolution ~ 0.2 microns – 0.5 microns
18. Observing Cells
• Electron Microscopes
– Preparation needed to kill the cells
– Images are black and white – may be colorized
– Magnifcation up to ~100,000
• Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
– 2-D image
• Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
– 3-D image
20. Cell Structure
• All Cells have:
–an outermost plasma membrane
–genetic material in the form of DNA
–cytoplasm
21. Cell Structure
• All Cells have:
–an outermost plasma membrane
• Structure – phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins
• Function – isolates cell contents, controls
what gets in and out of the cell, receives
signals
22. Cell Structure
• All Cells have:
–genetic material in the form of DNA
• Eukaryotes – DNA is within a membrane
(nucleus)
• Prokaryotes – no membrane around the
DNA (DNA region called nucleoid)
23. Cell Structure
• All Cells have:
–cytoplasm with organelles
• Cytoplasm – fluid area inside outer
plasma membrane and outside DNA
region
24. Eukaryotic Cells
• Structures in all eukaryotic cells
– Nucleus
– Ribosomes
– Endomembrane System
• Endoplasmic reticulum – smooth and rough
• Golgi apparatus
• Vesicles
– Mitochondria
– Cytoskeleton
25. NUCLEUS
CYTOSKELETON
RIBOSOMES
MITOCHONDRION ROUGH ER
SMOOTH ER
CENTRIOLES
GOLGI BODY
PLASMA LYSOSOME
MEMBRANE
Fig. 4-15b, p.59
26. Nucleus
• Function – isolates the cell’s genetic material,
DNA
– DNA directs/controls the activities of the cell
• DNA determines which types of RNA are made
• The RNA leaves the nucleus and directs the synthesis of
proteins in the cytoplasm
27. Nucleus
• Structure
– Nuclear envelope
• Two Phospholipid bilayers with protein
lined pores
–Each pore is a ring of 8 proteins with an
opening in the center of the ring
– Nucleoplasm – fluid of the nucleus
29. Nucleus
• DNA is arranged in chromosomes
– Chromosome – fiber of DNA and the
proteins attached to the DNA
– Chromatin – all of the cell’s DNA and the
associated proteins
30. Nucleus
• Structure, continued
– Nucleolus
• Area of condensed DNA
• Where ribosomal subunits are made
– Subunits exit the nucleus via nuclear pores
31.
32. Endomembrane System
• Series of organelles responsible for:
– Modifying protein chains into their final
form
– Synthesizing of lipids
– Packaging of fully modified proteins and
lipids into vesicles for export or use in the
cell
33. Endomembrane System
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– Continuous with the outer membrane of
the nuclear envelope
– Two forms - smooth and rough
• Transport vesicles
• Golgi apparatus
34. Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
• Network of flattened membrane sacs create a
“maze”
• Ribosomes attached to the outside of the RER
make it appear rough
35. Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Function RER
• Where proteins are modified and packaged in
transport vesicles for transport to the Golgi
body
36. Endomembrane System
• Smooth ER (SER)
– Tubular membrane structure
– Continuous with RER
– No ribosomes attached
• Function SER
– Synthesis of lipids (fatty acids, phospholipids,
sterols..)
37. Endomembrane System
• Additional functions of the SER
– In muscle cells, the SER stores calcium ions and
releases them during muscle contractions
– In liver cells, the SER detoxifies medications and
alcohol
38. Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi Apparatus
– Stack of flattened membrane sacs
• Function Golgi apparatus
– Completes the processing substances received
from the ER
– Sorts, tags and packages fully processed proteins
and lipids in vesicles
39. Golgi Apparatus
– The proteins and lipids are modified as they pass
through layers of the Golgi
– Molecular tags are added to the fully modified
substances
• These tags allow the substances to be sorted and
packaged appropriately.
• Tags also indicate where the substance is to be shipped.
40. Transport Vesicles
• Transport Vesicles
– Vesicle = small membrane bound sac
– Transport modified proteins and lipids from the ER
to the Golgi apparatus (and from Golgi to final
destination)
41. Endomembrane System
• Putting it all together
– DNA directs RNA synthesis RNA exits
nucleus through a nuclear pore ribosome
protein is made proteins with proper
code enter RER proteins are modified in
RER and lipids are made in SER vesicles
containing the proteins and lipids bud off
from the ER
42. Endomembrane System
• Putting it all together
ER vesicles merge with Golgi body
proteins and lipids enter Golgi each is
fully modified as it passes through layers of
Golgi modified products are tagged,
sorted and bud off in Golgi vesicles …
43. Endomembrane System
• Putting it all together
Golgi vesicles either merge with the
plasma membrane and release their
contents OR remain in the cell and serve a
purpose
44. Vesicles
• Vesicles - small membrane bound sacs
– Examples
• Golgi and ER transport vesicles
• Peroxisome
– Where fatty acids are metabolized
– Where hydrogen peroxide is detoxified
• Lysosome
45. Lysosomes
• The lysosome is an example of an organelle
made at the Golgi apparatus.
– Golgi packages digestive enzymes in a vesicle. The
vesicle remains in the cell and:
• Digests unwanted or damaged cell parts
• Merges with food vacuoles and digest the contents
46. Mitochondria (4.15)
• Function – synthesis of ATP
– 3 major pathways involved in ATP production
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Electron transport system (ETS)
47. Mitochondria
• Structure:
– ~1-5 microns
– Outer membrane
– Inner membrane - Highly folded
• Folds called cristae
– Intermembrane space (or outer compartment)
– Matrix
• DNA and ribosomes in matrix
49. Cytoskeleton (4.16, 4.17)
• Function
– gives cells internal organization, shape, ability to
move and polarity
• Structure
– Interconnected system of microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
• All are proteins
51. Cell Junctions
• Plasma membrane proteins connect
neighboring cells - called cell junctions
– Plant cells – plasmodesmata provide channels
between cells
52. Cell Junctions (4.18)
• 3 types of cell junctions in animal cells
1. Tight junctions
2. Anchoring junctions
3. Gap junctions
53. Cell Junctions
1. Tight junctions – membrane proteins seal
neighboring cells so that water soluble
substances cannot cross between them
• Seen between stomach cells
54. Cell Junctions
2. Anchoring junctions – cytoskeleton fibers
join cells in tissues that need to stretch
• See between heart, skin, and muscle cells
3. Gap junctions – membrane proteins on
neighboring cells link to form channels
• This links the cytoplasm of adjoining cells
56. Cell specialization
Specialized cell Function Modification
Muscle cell Contraction Myofilaments
Pancreatic acinar cell Synthesis and secretion of RER
enzymes
Kidney tubular cells Ion transport Basal membrane infoldings
Macrophages Intracellular digestion Lysosomes
Sensory cells Transformation of stimuli Membrane receptors
into nerve impulses
Leydig Testicular cells Synthesis and secretion of SER
testosterone
57. Tissues
• Tissues are collection of cells that subserve
specific function
• Four fundamental types:
– Epithelial
– Supporting
– Propulsion
– Nervous
– Composed of cells, intercellular matrix and tissue
fluid
