Air Pollution Evs

1. AIR POLLUTION: PROBLEMS, CONSEQUENCES AND MANAGEMENT Dr. Madhoolika Agrawal Professor Department of Botany Banaras Hindu University Varanasi-221 005, India

3. Air pollutants and their origin Fossil fuel combustion; waste incineration and assorted industries; metal smelting and refining processes Metals Petroleum refineries; glass industries; plastic incineration; scarp burning; accidental spills Chlorine Leaks and brakdown in industrial operations; feedlots and stockyards; spillage of anhydrous ammonia Ammonia Motor vehicles; refuse burning; combustion of coal and oil; natural occurrence Hydrocarbon Aluminium industry; steel manufacturing; phosphate fertilizer plants; brick plants Hydrogen fluoride Cars and trucks; combustion of natural gas, fuel, oil, coal; refining of petroleum Oxides of nitrogen Fossil fuels; petroleum and natural gas industries; metal smelting and refining processes Sulphur dioxide Atmospheric photochemical reactions; storm centers Ozone Source Air Pollutants

6. Number of house hold (million) BIOMASS BASED FUELS KEEP RURAL INDIA ALIVE

8. MASS EMISSIONS (Million Tons) FROM ENERGY ACTIVITIES IN INDIA

9. Background, typical ambient and peak concentrations of gaseous air pollutants > 10 1 - 10 < 1 PAHs 50 – 100 1 – 20 < 1 HC > 100 25 – 60 < 2.5 O 3 > 100 5 – 50 < 1 NOx 10 - 100 1 – 10 < 0.1 SO 2 Peak (ppb) Typical ambient (ppb) Background (ppb) Pollutants

10. TRENDS IN AIR POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS (µg m -3 ) IN INDIA

11. AIR POLLUTANTS O 3 SO 2 OXIDANT NO 2 LEAST IMPORTANT AG. CHEMICALS TOXIC ELEMENTS MOST IMPORTANT Impact singly and in combinations BIOTIC FACTORS PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS [Acute & Chronic exposures] LEAVES STEM PLANT ROOTS Inter Relation Pathogens Insects Insects Pathogens Mycorrhiza Nematodes N 2 fixation Competition INTERACTION OF ABOVE INTERACTION OF ABOVE Temperature Moisture Nutrition O 2 /CO 2 tension Soil Type Climatic Factors Light Temperature Humidity Wind CO 2 AIR SOIL

12. AIR POLLUTANTS DIRECT DAMAGE ON LEAVES DEATH Damage to crop crown Early leaf fall Growth disturbance Reduced photosynthesis Increased susceptibility to frost and pests Water deficit Nutrient deficiency Disturbance in nutrient & water uptake DISTURBANCE OF NUTRIENT RELEASE EFFECT ON SOIL ORGANISM SOIL ACIDIFICATION LEACHING OF NUTRIENTS AIR POLLUTANTS AND ITS CONSEQUENCES DAMAGE TO FINE ROOTS RELEASE OF TOXIC ELEMENTS INCREASED OR DECREASED TRANSPIRATION DISTURBANCE OF STOMATAL ACTIVITY DAMAGE TO PROTECTIVE SURFACE

13. MEASURE OF EFFECTS HOW THEY INTERRELATE? BIOMASS GROWTH Height Weight Area Number Volume INJURY SYMPTOMS PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE ACCUMULATION OF TOXIC COMPOUNDS CHANGES IN METABOLIC CONSTITUENTS GERMINATION YIELD Fruit set Weight Number Quality EXUDATES Stem Leaf Root AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS ON PLANTS INTERRELATIONSHIP

14. INDIRECT APPROACH INDIRECT APPROACH DEFINE OBJECTIVE GROWTH MODEL APPROACH POLLUTION LOSS ESTIMATE CHEMICAL PROTECTANTS AMBIENT EXPOSURE AIR EXCLUSION EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN EXPOSURE FACILITY ARTIFICIAL EXPOSURE SIMULATED AMBIENT EXPOSURES CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT CHAMBER OPEN TOP CHAMBER DIRECT APPROACH RESEARCH APPROACHES TO POLLUTION LOSS ASSESSMENT

15. YIELD REDUCTIONS(%) IN DIFFERENT CROP PLANTS GROWING IN OBRA- RENUKOOT -SINGRAULI AREA S: Sensitive (<30); I: Intermediate (15-30); R: Resistant (<15)

16. EFFECT OF THERMAL POWER PLANT EMISSION ON BIOMASS AND YIELD OF WHEAT ( T. aestivum L.) PLANTS Values in parenthesis are reduction as compared to reference site

21. Effect of ambient sulfur dioxide on yield of representative vegetables 100 103.5 93.3 101.4 92.8 94.7 Spinach 100 102.0 104.6 104.8 94.4 90.2 Tomato 100 98.3 90.4 83.1 68.0 44.4 Potato (tubers) Yield as percentage of control Vegetable 0 (Control) 22 26 34 44 59 Average concentrations (ppb) during exposure time 0 (Control) 10 20 51 83 141 Average concentrations (ppb) during monitoring time Sulfur dioxide 6 5 4 3 2 1 Site

22. MAP OF VARANASI

26. O 3 Concentration In Varanasi Exceeding 40, 50 And 60 Ppb During The Month Of December 2002 - April 2003 Hours exceeding Date of observation

27. PRODUCTION, ECONOMIC VALUE AND % LOSS IN ECONOMIC VALUE OF YIELD AT DIFFERENT SITES AROUND VARANASI CITY

28. CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS AND REGRESSION EQUATIONS BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL POLLUTANTS AND YIELD OF MUNG PLANTS Yield (g plant -1 ) Mean pollutant concentration (ppb)

29. Single view of open top chamber 1.5 m 1.8 m Experimental set of open top chambers

30. Pollutant Concentrations and Changes in Selected Parameters of Palak Grown under Filtered and Non-filtered Conditions Within each grouping, values not followed by the same letter are significant different at p < 0.05 Values in parenthesis represent percent increment due to filtration

31. Mean concentrations (ppb) of different pollutants at the experimental site during winter

32. Diurnal variations in hourly O 3 concentrations during March 1, 2007

33. Selected yield parameters of wheat cultivars grown in filtered and non-filtered chambers at a rural site HUW -234 PBW- 343 FCs NFCs FCs NFCs No. of ears (plant -1 ) 14.5± 0.42 11.66± 0.66 16.9± 0.525 12.8± 0.48 Wt of ears ( g plant -1 ) 29.66± 0.88 23.16± 1.01 34.8± 0.72 25.6± 0.37 No. of grains (plant -1 ) 568± 14.26 485.8± 18.89 674.5± 4.23 568.2± 4.02 Wt of grains (g plant -1 ) 27.16± 1.02 21.55± 0.85 31.81± 0.27 27.65± 0.22 Yield (g m -2 ) 977.88± 36.76 775.8± 30.92 (21%) 1145.16± 10.04 995.4± 8.07 (13%) HI (g g -1 ) 0.39± 0.01 0.36± 0.01 0.41± 0.006 0.38± 0.002

34. Seed weight (yield), test weight, pod weight and harvest index of mustard plants grown in FCs, NFCs and OPs at different levels of NPK

38. Seasonal variations in deposition of nitrate and sulphate ions (mg m -2 d -1 ) in clearfall and throughfall samples in the down wind of thermal power plants

39. Annual return of N (kg ha -1 yr -1 ) through total litterfall in Sal forests in the down wind of thermal power plants

40. Sulphate sulphur, organic sulphur and total sulphur concentrations (mg g -1 dry wt) in herbaceous vegetation in the down wind of thermal power plants 1.4 1.2 0.4 0.7 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.5 July October 10 1.9 1.7 0.7 1.2 October 5 2.5 2.1 0.8 1.7 October 3 2.1 2.9 0.75 2.6 1.2 0.8 0.9 2.1 July October 1.5 Total S Sulphate S / Organic S Organic S Sulphate-S Month Distance from TPP (km)

42. AIR POLLUTION TOLERENCE INDEX (APTI) APTI = A(T+P)+R 10 T = Total chlorophyll (mg g -1 dry weight) A = Ascorbic acid content (mg g -1 fresh weight) P = Leaf extract pH R = Relative water content (%)

43. Plant species (deciduous) arranged in the decreasing order of their air pollution tolerance index (APTI) 5 40 1.00 6.7 6.00 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 6 54 .35 7.3 4.50 Tectona grandis L. 7 45 2.00 6.4 6.27 Delonix regia Rafin. 9 74 1.92 6.0 3.28 Aegel marmelos Correa. 9 64 2.74 5.8 5.21 Madhuca indica J.F. Gmet. 12 60 6.42 5.4 3.45 Morus alba L. 12 87 2.50 6.2 6.60 Moringa oleifera Lam. 13 85 3.40 5.2 8.34 Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. 14 85 6.00 4.0 4.89 Tamarindus indica L. 14 75 4.27 6.0 10.00 Phyllanthus emblica L. 18 73 7.78 6.3 7.13 Psidium guajava L. 20 87 4.78 8.0 14.86 Ficus religiosa L. 22 77 10.21 6.3 7.50 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 25 80 10.50 6.0 10.26 Zizyphus jujuba Lamk. 28 72 16.00 6.2 6.89 Cassia fistula L. 32 53 18.00 6.3 8.00 Albizzia lebbek Benth. APTI R A P T Plant species

44. Plant species (evergreen) arranged in the decreasing order of their air pollution tolerance index (APTI) 5 58 2.59 5.4 0.75 Casuarina equisetifolia L. 9 48 3.56 6.3 6.60 Artocarpus heterophylla Lam. 10 72 2.91 4.6 6.07 Eugenia jambolana Lamk. 10 79 2.49 6.3 4.00 Alstonia scholaris R. Br. 10 71 3.75 5.6 4.00 Annona squamosa L. 12 87 3.78 5.4 4.28 Mangifera indica L. 15 79 5.98 6.5 4.54 Acacia arabica Willd. 12 80 4.49 5.0 4.25 Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.ra 19 86 5.80 5.8 12.50 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. 16 81 5.00 7.0 8.60 Ficus infactoria Roxb. 16 75 7.98 6.1 4.86 Terminalia arjuna Bedd. 18 71 4.79 8.4 14.89 Ficus glomerata Roxb. 18 80 8.68 6.2 5.78 Polyalthia longifolia Benth. 19 79 7.49 8.0 6.94 Ficus bengalensis L. 24 87 7.05 6.0 16.41 Pithecolobium dule Benth APTI R A P T Plant species

45. Plant species (shrubs) arranged in the decreasing order of their air pollution tolerance index (APTI) 12 74 4.75 5.5 4.50 Rosa indica L. 12 50 5.39 6.4 6.98 Laserstroemia parviflora Roxb. 14 78 4.67 6.2 6.00 Murraya exotica L. 16 70 6.50 5.8 7.50 Duranta pulmieri Jacq. 14 65 4.63 7.6 7.51 Lantana indica Roxb. 15 74 6.25 6.0 6.68 Citrus lemon (L.) Burn.f. 21 93 5.00 6.2 17.20 Ricinus communis L. 24 80 7.00 6.0 17.10 Poinsettia pulcherrima R. Grah. 27 94 9.00 6.4 13.00 Calotropis gigantes Ait. Hort. 30 74 12.79 6.1 11.70 Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. APTI R A P T Plant species

47. Vegetables tolerant to different pollutants Beet (Beta vulgaris) Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) Mint (Mentha pepracea) Turnip (Brassica rapa) Carrot (Daucus carota) Cabbage (B. oleracea capitata) Cowpea (Vigna sinensis) Ozone Cabbage (B. oleracea capitata) Cauli flower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) Carrot (Daucus carota) Onion (Allium cepa) Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) PAN Tomato (Lycopersicom esculentum) Squash (Cucurbita maxima) Pumpkin (Curcurbita pepo) Hydrogen fluoride Tomato (Lycopersicom esculentum) Onion (Allium cepa) Cauli flower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) Brinjal (Solanum melangena) Sulphur dioxide Vegetables Pollutants

48. Pollutants which irritate and inflame Particulate <5  m respirable SO 2 80  g m -3 annual average SPM 75  g m -3 annual average Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) & Particulate matter Cellular and structural changes in lung; primary target ciliated cells which clear the airways of inhaled foreign material. Ozone (O 3 ) Absorbed into the mucosa of respiratory tract. NO and N 2 O detected in blood and urine, mild inflammation, bronchities. Nitrogen Oxides (No x )

49. Pollutants producing toxic systemic effects Absorbed by lung & carried in blood, form carboxyhaemoglobin (CoHb), impair O 2 carrying capacity of blood Risks: Heart, Central Nervous System & the foetus, Neurobehavioural effect, Cardiovascular effect (above 30%), Symptoms: Headache & dizziness (10-30%), above 40% coma & death. Normal CoHb, 0.5% One pack cigarette 4-7% 80-90% inorganic 1% tetra alkyl lead (organic) Gastrointenstinal problem, Acute colic Damage kidney 95% bone Converted into tri alkyl lead in liver Neurological development in infants 0.5-1  g m -2 long time Carbon monoxide (CO) Lead (Pb)

50. Pollutants with potential carcinogenic effects Constituents of crude oil Enhance anti knocking Highly liposoluble Lung cancer; leukamia Incomplete combustion of fuel Mutagenic Absorb in lungs Eye irritation Coughing; nausea; asthma Dermal allergy Possible carcinogenic Benzene PAH (Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbon) Aldehydes Formaldehyde

51. Estimates of annual health incidences in Indian cities due to ambient air pollution levels exceeding WHO guidelines Note: WHO: World Health Organization 19,561,109 319,242 725 Patna 156,452,916 2,579,210 4,477 Mumbai 27,859,487 461,966 863 Madras 49,247,224 812,381 1,894 Kanpur 31,708,958 520,947 1,145 Jaipur 25,177,173 420,958 768 Hyderabad 241,958,219 3,990,012 7,491 Delhi 179,479,908 3,022,786 5,726 Calcutta 8,326,282 135,887 254 Bangalore 72,177,644 1,183,033 2,979 Ahmedabad Incidence of minor sickness Hospital admissions and sickness requiring medical treatment Premature deaths Cities

53. SO 2 and NO 2 concentrations (µg/m 3 ) at various sites during 1989, 1990, 1994 and 2002 * Pandey et al. (1992) 116 47 37 32 52 44 51 43 Cantt Railway Station 82 57 35 34 44 50 50 44 Golgadda 76 48 30 30 33 42 32 31 Godowlia 20 29 17 16 14 26 16 14 BHU 2002 1994 1990* 1989* 2002 1994 1990* 1989* NO 2 (µg/m 3 ) SO 2 (µg/m 3 ) Site

54. IMPROVEMENT OF AIR QUALITY IN VARANASI 54 RSPM 61 SPM 48 O 3 59 NO 2 71 SO 2 % Reduction Pollutants

55. Exceedance Factor = Observed annual mean concentration of a pollutant Annual standard for the respective pollutant and area class Air Quality Categories: Critical pollution (C) EF> 1.5 High pollution (H) EF between 1.0 – 1.5 Moderate pollution (M) EF between 1.0 – 0.5 Low pollution (L) EF < 0.5

56. CLASSIFICATION OF CITIES AS PER AQI- 2002 Critical pollution : Jodhpur, Agra, Kanpur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Dehradoon, Pune, Delhi, Raipur, Solapur, Varanasi, Jamshedpur, Jamnagar Heavy pollution : Ahmedabad, Baroda, Chandigarh, Jaipur, Kota, Patna, Surat, Vapi, Udaipur Moderate pollution : Nagpur, Nasik, Panaji, Bangalore, Chennai, Mumbai, Mysore, Hyderabad, Coimbatore, Madurai Low pollution: Cochin, Shillong, Pondicherry, Salem

57. Impact of interventions on Air Quality of Delhi (2000 vs. 2007) + Increase - Decrease - 60 % Pb - 38 % SO 2 + 18 % NOx - 48 % CO - 30% RSPM - 8 % SPM

60. THANKS