2. What is epilepsy
Occurance of two or more unprovoked seizures is
called epilepsy
Epileptic seizures are behavioral changes resulting
from paroxysmal, excessive discharges from brain
Single or occasional epileptic seizures or febrile fits
should not be classified as epilepsy
Not all jerks , shakes and episodic behaviors are
seizures
Tics, tremors, dystonias and sustained clonus in a
stroke pt may mimic epilepsy
4. Non epileptic psychogenic
seizure
How to differentiate
Cannot reliably differrentiate
Gradual onset
Stopping & restarting
Out of phase clonic movements of extremities
Vocalization in the middle of the seizure
Pelvic thrusting and lack of whole body rigidity
But frontal lobe cpx seizures may be
misdiagnosed (rocking, kicking, bicycling,
pelvic thrusting, genital manipulation and
cursing)
5. Aetiology
Unknown in 2/3rd
Head injury
Stroke
Brain tumor
Cortical dysplasia
Infection eg:neurocysticercosis
Alcohol related
6. Diagnostic workup
Firist diagnose seizure
Then determine
Seizure type
Syndromic classification
Etiology
Likelyhood of recurrence
Is treatment needed
8. Establishing the diagnosis
Is a paroxysmal event with impairement of
awareness
Diagnosis is clinical
Eye witness is very essential
There is no substitute for detailed Hx
Circumstance of the episode
Patterns of occurance
Preceding symptoms that may localise or suggest other
conditions
Timing, pattern and tempo of evolution of symptoms
Reported behaviour before, during and after the
event
9. History- before the event
Unusual stress (eg, severe emotional trauma)
Sleep deprivation
Recent illness
Unusual stimuli (eg, flickering lights)
Use of medications and drugs
Activity immediately before event (eg, change
in posture, exercise)
10. History during the event
Symptoms at onset (eg, aura)
Temporal mode of onset: gradual versus
sudden
Duration: brief (ictal phase <5 min) versus
prolonged
Stereotypy: duration and features of episodes
nearly identical versus frequently changing
Time of day: related to sleep or occuring on
awakening
11. History during the event
Ability to talk and respond appropriately
Ability to comprehend
Ability to recall events during the
seizure
Abnormal movements of the eyes,
mouth, face, head, arms, and legs
Bowel or bladder incontinence
Bodily injury
12. History after the event
Confusion
Lethargy
Abnormal speech
Focal weakness or sensory loss (ie,
Todd's paralysis)
Headache, muscle soreness, or
physical injury
13. Episode is more likely to be
syncopal if
Is precipitated by anxiety or pain (eg, venipuncture)
Occurs after the patient assumes an upright position
Occurs only when the patient is standing or sitting
Is associated with facial pallor and diaphoresis
Is not associated with sustained tonic or clonic
movements, bladder incontinence, or biting of the
tongue or cheek
Is not followed by postictal confusion, lethargy,
muscle soreness, and headache
Is followed by a relatively rapid return to baseline
14. Past medical history
Prolonged febrile fit
Meningitis
Encephalitis
Head injury
Cancer
Stroke
In diabetic pts hypo/hyperglycemia
Hyponatremia, hypocalcemia, hypo
parathyroidism and hypothyroidism can cause
fits
16. Physical examination
Examine the patient for injuries from the seizure or
fall.
Check oxygen saturation and auscultate the chest for
possible aspiration.
Measure heart rhythm and rate, blood pressure, and
orthostatic changes for assessment of syncope.
Auscultate for carotid murmurs or carotid bruits and
sources of embolic stroke.
Check for rapid pulses, which are often present after
seizure and may help in evaluation of psychogenic
seizures.
17. Neurological examination
Purpose is to identify focal or diffuse cerebral
dysfunction
Certain features will suggest focus of fit
Aphasia – frontal lobe, temporal or parietal
Right or left hemiparesis – contralateral motor cortex
Sensory deficit – parietal lobe dysfunction
Should be observed for
Fluency of language
Facial asymetry
Gaze preference
Pupilary asymetry (Herniation of brain)
Extensor plantar for some time - normal
18. Diagnostic testing
All pts should have
FBC
Ca, SE
Glucose
LFT
ECG – important to detect prolonged QT
(Morning generalised tonic clonic seizure)
19. Diagnostic testing
Toxicity screening and alcohol level in
appropriate pts
Lumbar puncture infection or fever
present, HIV or malignancy
20. Diagnostic testing -EEG
Role misunderstood
Detection of abnormality does not
equate epilepsy
Absence of inter ictal abnormality does
not exclude epilepsy
Only 1/3rd
of epileptics show
abnormalities
Ictal EEG could also be normal
21. Diagnostic testing -EEG
EEG is diagnostic in certain conditions
Generalised 3Hz spike and wave activity
-- 1ry generalised epilepsy
Ictal recordings are not routinely done
except in incidental situations
22. EEG telemetry
Ambualtory or video telemetry if
diagnosis remains in doubt
Presurgical
Intracranial amytal testing to test memory
and language function
Intracranial EEG to localise the focus
23. Imaging studies
Immediately after fit CT scan– bleeding or
structural lesions
MRI is the Ix of choice – sensitive & specific
for evaluation of structural lesions and brain
parenchyma
Mesial temporal sclerosis – hippocampus
Dysplasia – cortical architectural abnormalities
Better if could be done for all partial seizures
Reveals abnormality in
30% with generalised epilepsy
70% with focal epilepsy
24. Detailed investigations
Few pts will need
Hypoglycemia – early morning fits
ECHO
Ambulatory ECG
Urinary catecholamines
Porphyrins
25. Implications of diagnosis
May loose job
Life restricted
Mental trauma
Driving licence
Marriage
So all differential diagnosis should
be carefully considered
26. Classification
Generalised
Arise from both sides of the brain
simultaneously
Partial or focal
Occurs within one or more restricted
regions of the brain and effect of a
localised physiologic or structural
abnormality of brain (Eg: tumor, dysplasia,
stroke, trauma)
27. Classification
Generalised
seizures
Absence
Atonic
Myoclonic
Clonic
Tonic
Tonic clonic (Grand
mal)
Partial
Simple partial
consciousness not
affected
Complex partial
consciousness
impaired
Partial with 2ry
generalization
can be tonic clonic,
tonic or clonic
28. When to treat
Once diagnosed decide wether to treat or not
Recurrece
After a single tonic clonic fit 15-60%
After 2 fits – 85%
Probability of recurrence increases if
Family history +
Spike and wave pattern in EEG
Hx of prior neurological insult
Todd’s paralysis
Status epilepticus
Acute symp fit (occuring after brain insult)
29. First fit - to treat or not
What is the risk of treating and non
treating
What is the risk of recurrence
Occupation- heavy vehicle drivers – yes
In children – initial fit during sleep – no
need to treat
Patients preference
30. Management - aim
Prevent fits without causing adverse
effects
Optimise patients quality of life
Fits could be life threatening
Pts with epilepsy are at risk of sudden
unexpected death (1/200/yr in refractory
epilepsy)
31. Management - Principles
Rx is usually not given after a single
unprovoked seizure, unless recurrence
risk high
Avoid precipitating factors
Identify underlying conditions and Rx
Treatment strategies should be
explained to the pt
32. Management – Principles
(Drugs)
Choice – pts individual circumstance, syndrome and
side effect profile
Low dose – slowly increase over weeks, minimising
side effects and promoting compliance
If 1st
line drug fails, add another 1st
line drug while
gradually withdrawing the 1st
drug
If unsuccessful add 2nd
line drug
Vigabatrin and barbiturates should not be combined
Refer refractory cases for evaluation for surgery
33. Monotherapy vs polytherapy
47% fit free with one drug
14% fit free with addition 2nd
or 3rd
drug
If 2nd
drug fails refer for evaluation of
surgery
If not willing for surgery – consider
polytherapy
34. .
Type of
epileps
y
First-line agents Second-line agents
Partial Carbamazepine,
oxcarbazepine (Trileptal),
phenytoin (Dilantin)
Divalproex sodium (Depakote), felbamate
(Felbatol), gabapentin (Neurontin),
lamotrigine (Lamictal), levetiracetam
(Keppra), tiagabine HCl (Gabitril Filmtabs),
topiramate (Topamax), valproate
(Depakene, Depacon), zonisamide
(Zonegran)
Initial treatment for partial and generalized epilepsies
Initial treatment for partial and generalized epilepsies
35. Generalized
First line 2nd
line
•Absence
seizures
Ethosuximide (Zarontin),
valproate
Lamotrigine, levetiracetam
•Idiopathic
Lamotrigine, valproate Topiramate, zonisamide
•Symptomatic
Lamotrigine, topiramate,
valproate, zonisamide
Barbiturates, benzodiazepines
36. Seccond line drugs
All of the newer AEDs, including
felbamate, gabapentin, lamotrigine,
levetiracetam, oxcarbazepine,
topiramate, tiagabine, and zonisamide,
have demonstrated efficacy when used
as adjunctive therapy in patients with
poorly controlled seizures of partial
onset
37. Seccond line drugs
Lamotrigine
Could be used as 1st
line
Gabapentin
Safe, tolerable
Monotherapy in liver disease, cutaneous
allergies, porphyria, immune deficiencies,
elderly
40. Healthcare issues for patients with
epilepsy
Coping with the diagnosis
Observing and recording seizures
Identifying potential triggers and high-
risk times
Maintaining personal safety
Handling seizure emergencies
Managing adverse drug effects
Understanding the nonmedical options
for seizure management
41. Issues in social relationships and community living for
patients with epilepsy
Personal adjustment to epilepsy
Sexuality issues
Education and employment
Recreational opportunities
Disclosure of epilepsy to employers
Stigma and discrimination
Independent living
Transportation
Respite care
42. Healthcare issues for
patients with epilepsy
Managing concomitant illness
Understanding the relationship
between seizures and hormonal states
Practicing family planning
Managing pregnancy and menopause
Maintaining bone health
43. Withdrawl of treatment
>70% on Rx enter prolonged long term
remission
Even untreated 50% undergo remission
Why withdrawl
Side effects
Social restrictions
cost
Assess the patient
Do a follow up EEG
Counsel pt and family
44. Withdrawl of treatment
Pts fit free for >2yrs to be considered
2/3rd
are fit free
Recurrences occur
50% within 6/12
Majority within 1 year
45. Surgical treatment
Is not a recent development
If refractory refer to specialist epilepsy
clinic for evaluation
Prolonged video telemetry is the gold
standard for assesment of seizure
before surgery
Fit free >60%
46. Presurgical evaluation for
epilepsy
Routine electroencephalography (EEG)
Video-EEG monitoring
Magnetic resonance imaging
Positron emission tomography*
Single-photon emission computed
tomography*
Neuropsychological evaluation
Intracarotid amobarbital test (ie, Wada's test)
47.
48. Epilepsy in women
Cong malformation with drugs 4-6% (2x
normal population)
>90% with epilepsy have normal
pregnancy and deliver normal children
Most will need drug Rx, because
benefits outweighs risks
Number of drugs proportional to risk of
teratogenecity
49. Epilepsy in women
All females in childbearing age should
be on folic acid
Congenital abnormalities (with all)
Minor dysmorphic anomalies
Hyperptelorism
Epicanthal folds
Distal digital hypoplasia
Valproate:
2% risk of spina bifida
So avoid in females unless clearly indicated
50. Epilepsy in women
Contraceptive failure
Barbiturates
carbamezipine
Phenytoin
Topiramate
No effects on contraception
Gabapentin
Lamotrigine
Valproate