1. Oral Solid Dosage Forms 453
More recently, the attention has moved to synthetic polymers with the aim being to pro-
duce capsules that will overcome the shortcomings of gelatin, particularly its moisture con-
tent. Two alternative materials have been offered by capsule manufacturers, starch and
hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC).
The starch capsules are produced by an injection moulding process using potato starch,
and are produced in five sizes, all of the same diameter but with different lengths (Vilivalam
et al. 2000). While the fill volumes are similar to gelatin capsules, the different dimensions
necessitate specialised filling equipment. The capsule surface is less smooth than gelatin cap-
sules, and the injection moulding allows a smooth join between cap and body to be obtained.
These properties make the capsules amenable to film coating processes. The moisture content
of the capsules is 14 percent.
HPMC capsules are made by the pin-dipping process used for gelatin capsules and are
made to the same size specifications, allowing them to be filled on conventional capsule fill-
ing equipment. These capsules have a lower moisture content than gelatin capsules, and the
moisture is tighter bound, making them more suitable for moisture sensitive drugs and hy-
groscopic excipients. The capsule surfaces have rougher finishes than gelatin capsules, and
colouring the capsules is more difficult. The rough coat leads to better adhesion with coating
materials, so they could have applications for enteric coating.
SOFT GELATIN CAPSULES
Soft gelatin capsules are included in this chapter on oral solid dosage forms, although there is
debate as to whether or not they are solid or liquid dosage forms. The drug is presented in a
liquid encapsulated in a solid thus combining advantages of liquid dosage forms with the unit
dosage convenience of solid forms.
Manufacture
Unlike hard gelatin capsule shells which are manufactured empty and subsequently filled in a
separate operation, soft gelatin capsules are manufactured and filled in one operation. This is
a specialised process and tends to be performed by a limited number of companies. One con-
sequence, therefore, of selecting a soft gelatin capsule formulation is that the product will
probably be manufactured by a contract manufacturer. A desire to keep all manufacturing in-
house is one of the reasons for companies considering the use of liquid-filled hard gelatin cap-
sules as an alternative.
The shell ingredients of a soft gelatin capsule are gelatin, glycerol, which acts as a plasti-
ciser, and potentially other ingredients which could include additional plasticisers such as sor-
bitol or propylene glycol, dies or pigments, preservatives and flavours. The glycero-gelatin mix
is dissolved in water, then heated and pumped onto two cooling drums to form two gelatin
ribbons which are fed into the filling machine. The liquid fill is pumped between the gelatin
ribbons as they pass between the two die rolls of the filling machine, forcing the gelatin to
adopt the shape of the die. The two ribbons are sealed together by heat and pressure and the
capsules are cut from the ribbon (Figure 11.32). They then pass through a tumble dryer to re-
move the bulk of the water and conditioned at 20 percent relative humidity (RH).
The fill can be either a solution or a suspension, liquid or semi-solid. The main limitation
is that the fill must be compatible with the shell. The main incompatibilities are: high

2. 454 Pharmaceutical Preformulation and Formulation
Figure 11.32 Schematic of the soft gelatin capsule manufacturing process.
concentrations of water or other solvents that will dissolve the shell, high pH ( 7.5) solutions
which will cause cross-linking of the gelatin which will retard dissolution of the shell, low pH
solutions which may hydrolyse the gelatin and aldehydes which promote cross-linking. The
types of vehicles that can be used in soft gelatin capsules are similar to those used for liquid-
filled hard gelatin capsule shells listed in Table 11.20.
Benefits of Soft Gelatin Capsule Formulations
Soft gelatin capsules are a more expensive dosage form than either tablets or capsules, so they
tend to be considered when they can offer a major benefit to the formulator. Justifications for
their use include improved content uniformity, safety, improved stability and improved
bioavailability.

3. Oral Solid Dosage Forms 455
Improved Content Uniformity
Because soft gelatin capsules are filled with liquids or suspensions, excellent content unifor-
mity can be achieved with even the most potent of drugs. The accuracy of the filling mecha-
nism enables the dose to be filled to a tolerance of 1 percent for solutions and 3 percent
for pastes.
Safety
Dissolving potent drugs in a liquid vehicle reduces the risk of operator exposure to dusts that
is present with tablet and hard gelatin capsule manufacturing operations.
Improved Stability
Varying the level of glycerol in the shell formulation will alter the permeability of the shell to
oxygen. The filling process can be performed under nitrogen, so by appropriate selection of
shell composition, this technology can provide excellent protection for oxygen sensitive drugs.
Improved Bioavailability
Presenting the drug to the GI tract in a solubilised form overcomes the processes of disinte-
gration and dissolution that are required from hard gelatin capsules and tablets before the
drug substance is available for absorption. This has been utilised to improve the bioavailabil-
ity of drugs with a range of solubilities.
Acid soluble drugs can be dissolved or dispersed in water miscible vehicles that rapidly
distribute the drug throughout the stomach following administration. Acid insoluble drugs
can be dissolved in water miscible vehicles, which results in the drug precipitating as a fine sus-
pension in the stomach. The surface area of the solid in suspension is high, resulting in rapid
dissolution.
Formulation of compounds that have very low aqueous solubility in lipid vehicles is an
area that has seen the most growth in recent years. Two approaches can be used, depending on
the solubility characteristics of the drug substance. For compounds with log P values in the
region of 2 to 4, the preferred approach is to form self-emulsifying systems. These formula-
tions comprise a lipid vehicle, typically a medium-chain triglyceride together with a surfactant
which, on contact with an aquaeous environment, spontaneously form micelles. The drug re-
mains solubilised in the micelles. Drugs with higher log P values can be dissolved in a di-
gestible oil such as medium-chain monoglycerides that is immiscible with water. On release
from the capsule the drug remains solubilised in the immiscible oil. The precise mechanism
by which the drug is absorbed from the oil is not fully understood but there are a number of
compounds on the market which have successfully demonstrated improved bioavailability by
this route.
SUMMARY
This chapter has summarised some of the key aspects of powder technology that are impor-
tant to the development of the principal solid dosage forms, tablets and capsules. Space re-
strictions have prevented this being a very detailed review, and there are many specific types